Politics - Liberalism

Why did liberalism come about

After feudalism in Europe - capitalism reflected the aspirations of the middle class

define individualism

the belief of the supreme importance of the individual over any social group or collective body

JSM individualism quote

‘Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign’

Immanuel Kant quote individualism

German enlightenment philosopher - individuals are ‘ends in themselves’ not means for the achievements of others

why does individualism support a limited state

Centred around humans as rational beings - individuals know their own best interests and should not be decided by some ‘paternal figure’

Define freedom

the ability to think or act as one wishes

why is freedom central to liberalism

Seen by early liberals as a natural right - essential for leading a truly human existence

John Locke and John Stuart Mill on freedom

Locke explored the freedom under law and economic freedom - private property seen as the embodiment of individual liberty

JSM - explored the more human side of liberty with freedom of speech, thought and religion - being able to develop as an autonomous individual through education

JSM higher and lower pleasures

Lower - base, physical or sensual pleasures

Higher - develop and individuals intellectual, moral or artistic feelings

define natural rights

‘God-given’ rights that are fundamental to human beings and are therefore inalienable

define individuality

Self-fulfilment achieved through the realisation of one’s distinctive or unique identity or qualities - what distinguishes one person from all

‘Necessary evil’

Thomas Paine ‘necessary’ to create an ordered society where freedom can flourish', but ‘evil’ in potential to undermine individual liberty

Why do the liberals think the state necessary

Each person is simultaneously both a threat to, and under threat from, every other member of society. Therefore protection is provided by a sovereign state, capable of restraining of individuals and groups from encroaching on each others freedom.

social contract

developed by theorists like Locke - the state is set up with an agreement from the people to abide by laws which are there to protect them

State of nature

Idea painted by Locke of a society characterized by an unrestrained freedom and the absence of established authority

‘A state of liberty, yet it is not a state of licence…. the state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges everyone

Locke agreed that people would realise that a state of nature is unsatisfactory due to the liability of individuals to enforce the ‘natural law’ upon each other, and therefore respected that people would want to transfer these rights to a government

theory of state of nature

A legitimate government is established by the explicit consent of those governed

According to Locke, what happens if government goes beyond protecting individual rights

The people do not have to follow these laws and they reserve the right to rebellion

Define mechanist theory

That the state was created ‘from below’ by the people to serve them and act in their interest

What are Locke’s 4 key stipulations

1. individuals can’t take something if it involves harming someone else

2. individuals can’t take possession of more than they can use

3. individuals must leave ‘enough and as good’ for others

4. individuals can only acquire property by their own labour

Quote on economic freedom

Milton and Rose Freidan in ‘Free to Choose’ (1979), ‘the essential part of economic freedom is freedom to use the resources we possess in accordance with our own values’

Classic vs modern liberalism on free markets

classic - viewed market economy as a place where both consumers and producers indicate their wishes through the price mechanism

modern - reject the idea of a self-regulating market economy and instead argued that the economy should be regulated by government

Define rationalism

The idea of basing one’s opinions and actions on reason and knowledge, as opposed to religious, emotional or superstitious notions

how does rationalism support the idea of limited conflict

Believe that due to individuals being rational, conflict can generally be resolved by debate, discussion and argument, greatly reducing the need for force and bloodshed

Rationalism and Mary Wollstonecraft

Wollstonecraft argued that people saw ‘females rather as women that human creatures’ and argued that both men and women should be treated equally as they were both rational human beings

Paternalism

power exerted from above in the interests of the people

Foundational equality

rights that all humans have by virtue of being born

Thomas Jefferson vs John Locke on what the government on natural rights

Locke - life, liberty and property

Jefferson - life, liberty and pursuit of happiness (nod to individual power and right to decide)

define equality of opportunity

the idea that all individuals should have equal chances in life to rise and fall

meritocracy

society where success is based on ability and hard work

quote on toleration

Voltaire - ‘I detest what you say but will defend to death your right to say it’

pluralism definition

a belied in diversity or choice or that political power should be widely and evenly dispersed

Lord Acton quote on liberal fear of power

great men are almost always bad men

Limited government

Limited by checks and balances and by the separation of powers

define checks and balances

the idea that government must divide power between various branches to ensure that no one branch can become dominant over another

Fears that early liberalists had over democracy

1. could become enemy of individualism - sees ‘the people’ as a collective not a single entity

2. French politician ‘the tyranny of the majority’

3. JSM - political wisdom is unevenly distributed as education level is largely related to class

Justification for modern liberals over democracy

1. founded on consent - needed a way to protect themselves from the government

2. Mill - benefits of political participation, citizens enhance their understanding and achieve a higher level of personal development - John Rawls argues that the debate before an election is what gave democracy its value

Atomism

society is merely a collection of separate self-sufficient individuals

classic vs modern on individualism

classic - egoistical, atomism, rational beings who work in own self interest, limits of the body are the limits of the individual

modern - developmental, atomism seen as morally naive (some issues transcend personal responsibility),individual potential so everyone can live worthwhile lives

‘nightwatchman state’

classic liberals on the state - remain in the background as a warning of consequence for anyone looking the break the law

Harm principle - who and what

JSM - individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals

Enabling state

Modern liberals on the state - a larger state that helps individuals achieve their potential and be free

Beveridge quote

‘A starving man is not free’

Rawls on distributive justice

Argues that social institutions were the key so this - fair allocation of resources among members of a community

who are the key economists for classic liberals

Adam Smith and David Ricardo

Adam Smith quote on markets

‘It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interests’

Keynesianism

An economic system that requires government involvement to stimulate the economy and achieve full employment and price stability

altruism

concern for the interest and welfare of others based on an enlightened self interest

John Locke

• 1632-1704

• more emphasis on natural rights - life liberty and property - justified gov by the protection of these rights

• purpose of the state is to enlarge freedom - ‘where there is no law, there is no freedom’

• social contract from ‘state of nature’ - people transfer rights to gov

• ‘revolt is the right of the people’ - overthrow illegitimate gov

• ‘The care, therefore, of every mans soul belongs unto himself’

Mary Wollstonecraft

• 1759-97

• feminist based on rational being and personhood - ‘I shall first consider women in the grand light of human creatures’

• wanted a woman’s worth to come from knowledge and education not from appearance, achieve psychological independence - ‘elegance is inferior to virtue’

• argued women were only narrow minded and dissatisfied due to the discriminatory educational systems

• ‘I do not with for them to have power over men; but over themselves’

John Stuart Mill

• 1806-73

• Harm principle - sole legitimate basis for restricting individual liberties

• threats to liberty from democracy - ‘it is important that every one of the governed should have a voice in the government’

• extra votes for the educated

• believed in individuality and Tocqueville’s ‘tyranny of the majority’

• ‘The despotism of custom is everywhere standing hinderance to human advancement’

• higher and lower pleasures - only free to those with intellectual capabilities

• ‘it is better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied’

John Rawls

• 1921-2002

• justice as fairness - equal rights, equality of opportunity, promoting the interests of the disadvantaged - society accessible to all

• Inequalities are OK if they increase the prosperity of the least well off

• believed in a capitalist society WITH strong social institutions

• ‘original position’ - decisions are made behind the ‘veil of ignorance’ to create the ‘difference principle’

• in a system of ignorance about one’s status, one would strive to improve the position of the worst off, because he might find himself in that position