Studied by 200 peopleSpiral of Silence
Society threatens with isolation those people who violate moral consensus
We fear this isolation and try to prevent it from happening
Therefore, we constantly monitor our environment and have developed a quasi-statistical sense of the climate of public opinion
We share our opinions when we believe they are the dominant opinion, or the opinion on the rise (i.e., a bandwagon effect)
The media often gives a platform to the loudest voices (even though they may represent a minority opinion)
Together, this results in the spiral of silence ...
"Public Opinion”
The collection of views or opinions held by people about issues concerning them
Self-interest
_____________ plays a role in public opinion, including making opinions resistant (or open) to change
elites & major events
But, ______ & ______ ______ can have dramatic impacts on public opinion
Ryan Braun accused of steroid use - My friends (Wisconsin baseball fans) said there should be no punishment; called the report erroneous and accused many of lies and incompetency
Maintained this stance even as evidence mounted
After Braun admitted steroid use, many still maintained this stance, or shifted to the “everyone is doing it” argument
Johnny Manziel vs. Todd Gurley
With no interest in the Aggies season and a general dislike of Manziel, my opinion was that rules were (likely) broken and he should be suspended
One year later and I felt the rule was ridiculous and no suspension warranted
Self-interest plays a role in public opinion, including making opinions resistant (or open) to change… EXAMPLES:
Opinion Leaders
_____ _____ are:
Highly interested in a given subject or issue
Better informed than most (often college educated)
Avid consumers of media
Early adopters of new ideas /technologies
Have higher income
Active in the community and with recreation activities
Good organizers who can galvanize action
Oprah's Book Club
Example of Opinion Leaders
Media
The _____ play a key role in influencing opinion as they are a crucial source for information
Agenda Setting theory
The media don’t tell us what to think, only what to think about
Of course, public relations specialists are responsible for anywhere between 50-60% of all media content
Agenda Setting
What are the current issues that the media are telling us are important? It probably depends where you look ...
Priming
A memory-based effect whereby exposure to a stimulus influences later thinking
Framing
A theory related to the presentation of information
Defined a number of different ways by a number of different people
As the selection of specific facts or pieces of information that journalists use in a news story (media frames)
Different packages of otherwise equivalent information
Gain Frames and Loss Frames
Two major Frames
Gain Frames
Emphasize the advantages of a given action
EXAMPLE: “If you quit smoking you will live longer”
Work better for motivating prevention behaviors (e.g., using sunscreen)
Loss Frames
Emphasize the disadvantages of failing to comply
EXAMPLE: “If you do not quit smoking you will die sooner”
Work better for motivating detection behaviors (e.g., cancer screenings)
Prevention Behaviors; Detection Behaviors
Gain Frames are to _____ as Loss Frames are to ____
Frames
_____ are not about offering new facts
Rather: ____ differ in how they present issues - Estate tax vs. Death tax
Drill for oil vs. Explore for energy
In media, _____ help audiences
determine why an issue is important
e.g., Is secondhand smoke a health issue or rights issue?
efficiently process new information by connecting it to what we already know
e.g., Habitual offender laws ... 3-strikes and you’re out!
Persuasion
_____ is to:
Change or neutralize hostile opinions
Crystallize latent opinions and positive attitudes
Conserve favorable opinions
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
one Model of Persuasion
Another model of Persuasion
Audience Analysis
Source Credibility
Making Appeals to Self-Interest
Ensure the Clarity of your Message
Work in Audience Participation
Carefully Determine the Content and Structure of your Message
Keys to Persuasion
Audience Analysis
Know who you’ll be communicating with
How involved are they? What do they think? Etc.
Source Credibility
Who can we have deliver our message? Recall those attributes we just discussed (expertise, sincerity & charisma)
Making Appeals to Self-Interest
Structure your message to appeal to your target
People also are driven by altruism
Ensure the Clarity of your Message
Make the message accessible
Have a clear call to action
Work in Audience Participation
Major growth in user-generated content
Participating reinforces their beliefs and adds credibility to the message
Carefully Determine the Content and Structure of your Message
Will you use statistics? Exemplars? Appeals to logic? Appeals to emotion? Testimonials? Celebrity endorsements? Links to normative behavior ...
Self-Selection
Selective Perception
Hostile Media Effect
Limits to Persuasion
Self-Selection
Let’s say we get our message to the target audience …
We live in an information age and it does not make sense for most of us to: a) attend to all the messages that come our way b) process those messages, and c) develop an in-depth attitude or understanding of the issue in question - We are “cognitive misers”
Selective Perception
... and, we’re biased processors
We process information through various perceptual filters, including
religious beliefs
Trust
political ideology
etc.
As a result: Any given “fact” may mean different things to different people …
Hostile Media Effect
Another indicator of how we process mediated content
When we give an equivalent piece of communication to different partisan groups, each group tends to feel that the communication is biased against their point of view
Competition
Two or more groups fighting for the same resource
Conflict
When groups direct their efforts against each other, often through verbal attacks
*** Contingency Theory
PR professionals monitor for threats, assess those threats, arrive at a desirable stance, and begin communications efforts
Influenced by Situational demands and Resources
The stance is dynamic; It changes as events unfold
Situational demands
nature of crisis, duration, severity, size, complexity; influence of actors, etc.
Resources
time, money, knowledge, expertise, etc.
Regret
Responsibility
Remedy
The three R’s of apologizing:
express empathy ... and do so quickly
Regret
Avoid the blame game and be transparen
Responsibility
be part of the solution
Remedy
Pepsi and Syringes
Tylenol Poisonings
Examples of Contingency Theory In Action
Further complicating this process: public concern can be difficult to predict or disproportional to the actual risk..
The Amplification (Or Attenuation) Of A Crisis
The Conflict Management Life Cycle
Proactive
Strategic
Reactive
Recovery
Repeat
The Conflict Management Life Cycle: The Proactive Phase
To prevent a conflict from arising or spreading
Environmental scanning: reading, watching, paying attention to matters of interest to organization - Issues tracking: a more narrowed version of above
Issues management: create strategic plans or begin modifying behavior to address emerging issues - Crisis plan: preparing for the worst
The Conflict Management Life Cycle: The Strategic Phase
Emerging conflict is identified as needing action
Crisis management: filling in the current logistics for your specific crisis plan
Risk communication: communicating the risk to vulnerable publics
Conflict positioning strategies: how can the organization best position itself in the “court of public opinion” and in preparing for possible litigation? - These two areas may be in conflict with one another
The Conflict Management Life Cycle: The Reactive Phase
Must react when conflict reaches a critical level of impact
Crisis communication: putting that planning into effect; help victims; communicate plans through media
Conflict resolution techniques: reduce the conflict and/or bring about resolution
Litigation public relations: preparing for legal actions
The Conflict Management Life Cycle: The Recovery Phase
Strategies employed in the aftermath to bolster or repair reputation
Reputation management: Research-based approach to understand and bolster reputation
Image restoration strategies: An extreme form of reputation management when damage to an organization is large - ValuJet acquires AirTran and takes their name
Eighty-six percent of business crises are “smoldering crises,” meaning there are clear warning signs
Smoldering crises vs. sudden crises
Crisis Communication Management: Filling The Void
Principle 1: when a crisis occurs, an information vacuum is created
Principle 2: when a vacuum exists, it will be filled
By whom? With what?
Crisis Management: How To Communicate During A Crisis
Set up a central information center
Monitor news coverage and the phone
Designate a (strong) spokesperson
Be accessible and honest
Communicate with key publics
Provide information often (understand the needs of media)
Be careful about saying, “no comment”
Put the public first
Take responsibility – Ryan Braun vs. Roger Clemens
Control or Efficacy
Complexity
Familiarity
Message consistency
Consequences
Risk Communication: Five Variables Affecting Risk Perception
Control or Efficacy
how much control do you have over risk avoidance? (e.g., smoking versus chemicals in my water)
Complexity
How hard is it to avoid the risk (e.g., flu shots vs. changing my diet and exercise habits)?
Familiarity
How familiar is the risk and the behavior required to avoid the risk (e.g., hurricane preparation)?
Message consistency
Are your messages consistent?
Consequences
Do your audiences believe the consequences apply to them?
Risk Communication: Extended Parallel Processing Model
Fear & Smoking
Four factors are believed to influence the outcome a fear appeal message:
Self-Efficacy
Response Efficacy
Susceptibility
Severity
Self-Efficacy
Can I perform the tasks needed to control the threat/risk?
Response Efficacy
If I perform those tasks, will it prevent the threat/risk?
Susceptibility
Does the threat/risk impact me?
Severity
Is the threat/risk large enough to worry about?
Important Factors Related to the Public Relations Audience
Diversity
Geography, history, culture, religion, etc.
Expanding international audiences
Use of technology
Used to segment audiences and compile data (e.g., Google AdWords)
Formation of online communities … like the nerds I play (online) hockey with!
Support for single issues
Finding like-minded others through technology often leads to singular focus on issues for people ... but what about other important issues?
Bill Gates vs. Filter bubble
Visual orientation
Compounded by smart phones, tablets, etc.
Shortened attention spans and the importance of the “sound bite”
Emphasis on personality and celebrity
Who is a “celebrity”? Can we trust “celebrity” tweets? Or are these just paid advertisements?
Distrust of authority & polarization
Makes PR crucially important, but also difficult
Generation Z (born ~ 1997 to 2015)
a.k.a., the Post-Millennial Generation, iGen
Make up 26% of the U.S. population – slightly more than Millennials or Boomers
Spend only 8 min. per day online via PC
Online time is almost exclusively mobile
Less accepting of the idea of the “American Dream”
Self-identify as loyal, compassionate, open-minded, and determined, but see others in their generation as competitive, spontaneous, adventuresome, and curious
More risk-averse than previous generations
Lower alcohol and drug use rates
Interested in “making the world a better place”
Millennials (born ~ 1981 – 1996)
a.k.a., Generation Y, E-Generation
80 million Millennials in U.S. equals high buying power
Spend 1/4 to 1/3 of their lives online
Foster relationships online
(Some) trends among Millennials:
Are not influenced by advertising
Review blogs before making a purchase
Value authenticity
Want to engage with brands on SNS
Want to co-create products with companies
Use multiple tech devices
Brand loyal
Expect brands to give back to society
Generation X (born 1965 – 1980)
Independent
A generation of latch-key kids
Tech savvy & resourceful
Work to live rather than live to work
Not particularly employer loyal
Value freedom in the workplace
Disdain being micro-managed
Generally tolerant of “alternative” lifestyles
Baby boomers (born between 1946-64)
Came of age during advent of TV, giving them appreciation for visual advertising
Question authority & take a strong positions on social issues (60s mentality)
May retire later than their parents due to improved health and financial uncertainty
Competitive in their careers and define themselves according to their profession
Great appreciation for leisure time
Educated & take pride in accomplishment
Seniors
Approximately 13% of today’s population
Are less easily convinced than young adults
Active in voting, reading media (senior women flocking to Facebook)
Excellent source of volunteers given free time and strong health
Extremely health conscious
Nintendo Wii/Norwegian Cruise Lines partnership
Savings eroded since the 2008 economic crisis
Women
Have significant purchasing power
Traditionally “male” businesses trying to capitalize on this by campaigning to women
Harley Davidson: Female-only garage parties and instructional videos
Exercise great influence as opinion leaders
Large networks of friends
Have been labeled “multi-minded”
Able to balance roles as professionals, mothers, wives, etc.
e.g., NFL marketing
The LGBTQ+ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer/Questioning Community)
Brand loyal and tend to support companies and brands that reflect their views
Disposable income:
29% of same-sex households have median incomes over $90,000
20 million LGBTQ adults have buying power of ~ $1 trillion / year
Religious groups
Growing in market & political power (e.g., Catholics; Evangelicals)
Movie studios developing projects in the aftermath of the success of “The Passion of the Christ”
Notes on the film Noah:
Paramount hired a faith-based consultant
Special trailers screened at Christian conferences & high-profile pastors invited to screenings
“You're going to see Russell Crowe as a superhero, a guy who has this incredibly difficult challenge put in front of him and has to overcome it.”
Diversity media
The number of options for reaching minority audiences has increased
Research concerning these publics has also shown impressive growth
And we’re seeing a growth in targeted info based on race/ethnicity
Hispanic Audiences
Fastest-growing ethnic group in U.S.
Heavy use of social media and texting
Heavy consumers of radio and TV - e.g., Spanish-language KLAX #1 during L.A. morning drive time
Traditionally passionate and brand loyal demographic that is skeptical when they believe campaigns have simply been translated into Spanish
Black Audiences
Rise in affluence - Buying power reached $1.2 trillion in 2016 and jumped to ~$1.5 trillion by 2020
Black audiences recognized as pop culture trendsetters
e.g., The evolution of Mountain Dew:
Heaviest TV consumers ... and networks (finally) taking notice
Asian Audiences
Relatively small, but educated and affluent group
Often ignored by communicators due to issues of complexity
Small group with much diversity
Heavy reliance on digital communications
Smart products, gaming, streaming services
Multi-generational homes where families watch content together
Mediasphere
Top-down
Controlled by gatekeepers
Expensive
One-way communication
Blogosphere
Widespread or horizontal
Meritocracy
Inexpensive
Mobile, two-way communication
Social media
Blogosphere is synonymous with
Leveraging the Power of the Internet: Risks
You lose control of your content ... can support or destroy a reputation
A half-hearted attempt will hurt business
Social media works when you listen to consumers, facilitate conversations, engage in those conversations, otherwise it alienates
There is a need to be on multiple platforms that evolve quickly
Leveraging the Power of the Internet: Benefits
Is convenient (easy to use and update, cost-effective), interactive, no space constraints, can be targeted, casual, less sanitized, & accepted with less cynicism
Real-Time Content & Casual Content
Social Media Promotes _____________ & __________
Dangers of Social Media
Do corporations have a place on social media?
How can we leverage real-time communications while avoiding these mishaps?
But further, have we given proper consideration to how others might respond?
The most popular Social media platform
~70%
Facebook is used by ~ __% of American adults overall
Organizations establish a presence on Facebook for: - Audience engagement and involvement - Because they feel they have to
Public relations materials will need to stand out in a sea of content
***It is inclusive in demographics though users tend to be older
Misinformation (EXAMPLE: Zika virus)
What goes viral on Facebook? False information, apparently
Used by about 22% of American adult internet users and 20% of all American adults
In PR, Twitter is a distribution platform for: - late-breaking news, - to refute a viral rumor, - or to provide real-time updates on developing situations
Also used for marketing and promotional purposes
Using ____ can put out PR fires
*** Younger than Facebook, more Urban/Suburban than rural
Make direct appeal for others to share (e.g., “retweet”)
Imitate news headline style
Produce longer, more informative tweets
But, keep vocabulary simple
Produce messages with commonly used words in the target community. Authors write: “Although distinctive messages may attract attention, messages that conform to expectations might be more easily accepted and shared”
Best practices for getting read on Twitter
Viral Marketing
“Buzz” or awareness about a product or service, particularly those with limited budgets - e.g., Dumb ways to die
Internet Memes
Organizations increasingly attempting to build interactive content for sharing in social spaces
The marketing team behind Straight Outta Compton produced the “Straight Outta Somewhere” meme generator, which allowed users to insert their hometown into the film’s logo
Strong interest in _______ from a PR perspective because the format often pushes users toward goods - Used by ~ 30% of American adult internet users and 25% of American adults overall
Dominated by women in their 30s ... a group that does a disproportionate amount of the shopping - Strong links from Pinterest to company websites (second to Facebook)
Pinterest presence must incorporate high quality visuals to be successful
Snapchat
Has emerged as arguably the most important platform for reaching young Millennials/Gen Z
Audience: ~62% of 18-29 yr. olds are on the platform
There’s actually a divide within that age range: - Nearly ¾ of 18-24 yr. olds vs. a little less than half of those 25-29 - Only ~3% of those 65+ are on the platform
Roughly 1/3 of users between the ages of 13 and 24 claim to use it, “because their parents did not”
Reports more than 200 million daily active users
The platform reports approximately 18 billion video views per day
61% of users are female
Young audiences are especially engaged and a strong majority use the platform everyday and multiple times a day
Recently eclipsed 500 million users - Used by 28% of American adult internet users - Used by 24% of American adults overall
Users tend to be quite active
Nearly 60% of users go on everyday
About 35% use it multiple times per day
Teens list it as their second most important social media platform (Snapchat is #1)
Emphasis on quality images, but also quality captions to contextualize your message
*** Lot of POCs and young people
Virtual Reality
Virtual reality is poised to be an integral part of future PR efforts
Some are already taking advantage of the technology … - Jurassic World Apatosaurus app - Time Magazine and the March on Washington
Dark Patterns
tricks in websites/apps that make you do things that you didn't mean to
Sneak into Basket
A website sneaks an additional item into your basket, often through an opt-out button or checkbox on a prior page
Roach Motel
You find it hard to get out of a situation that was easy to get into (e.g. a premium subscription)
Privacy Zuckering
Being tricked into publicly sharing more information about yourself than you intended to
Hidden Costs
When unexpected charges appear at the last step of the checkout process, e.g. delivery charges, tax, etc
Disguised Ads
Advertisements that are disguised as other kinds of content or navigation
Confirmshaming
Decline options worded to shame user into compliance
Note
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