SOC100 UOFT

sociology

the science of society, social institutions, and social relationships specifically: the systematic study of the development, structure, interaction, and collective behavior of organized groups of human beings

cognitive dissonance

when a person is confronted by simultaneously holding conflicting beliefs, ideas, or values. Usually this occurs when new evidence is presented and a discomfort arises from needing to resolve the contradiction

sociological imagination

framework for understanding social reality that places personal experiences within a broader social and historical context

sociological principles

1. see the general in the particular
2. see the strange in the familiar

decline bias

believing that change leads to worsening conditions compared to the past

objectivity

basing conclusions on empirically verifiable facts collected with sound scientific principles rather than personal opinions, feelings, preferences, or experiences

social location bias

the combination of factors including gender, race, social class, age, ability, religion, sexual orientation, geographic location, and many more that are particular to each individual; that is, social location is never the exact same for any two individuals

relies on anecdotal evidence

confirmation bias

the tendency to process information by looking for, or interpreting, information that is consistent with one's existing beliefs

fundamental attribution error

The tendency to attribute the observed failings of others to internal factors like their disposition, personality, or intelligence

self-serving bias

Essentially the opposite of fundamental attribution error, i.e. the tendency to attribute one's own failings to external factors outside of our control rather than taking personal responsibility

optimism bias

The tendency to view things positively while in a good mood

pessimism bias

The tendency to view things negatively while in in a bad mood

cultural bias

Perceiving one's own culture as being normal and, therefore, other cultures as being abnormal

ethnocentrism

the practice of evaluating or judging one culture by the standards of another; most typically, judging other cultures using your culture

cultural relativism

The view that a culture can only be understood and judged by the standards, behaviors, norms, and values within the culture and not by anything outside

sportswashing

the practice of a controversial company or country using sports sponsorship to improve its reputation

assimilation

the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnic heritage are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society

multiculturalism

rather than seeing society as a homogenous culture, recognizes cultural diversity while advocating for equal standing for all cultural traditions. Follows cultural relativism, and dictates that cultural preferences should be respected and protected

Why did the education system become mandatory?

1. Provided job training
2. It created a population that was more compatible with democracy and functioning government institutions (literacy for example aided in the ability of people to vote, to become educated through news, to engage with the health care system and other aspects of society like unemployment)
3. It helped reduce class differences and class inequality by providing access to education

ideal types

a mental construct or thought-exercise where you observe things of the same type and try to find their common elements to form an ideal construct based on what they all have in common

structural functionalism

a view of the world that see's society as this relatively stable set-up that is based on known structures and relationship patterns that we can understand, study, and see the interconnections between

believes that society is generally working, figuring itselfout, and that yes, it is always changing and fixing issues, but itgenerally is good at restoring stability or balance

tenets of structural functionalism

1. Functionalism stresses that human behavior is governed by relatively stable patterns of social relations, or social structures.
2. Functionalism underlines how social structures maintain or undermine social stability.
3. Functionalist theories emphasize that social structures are based mainly on shared values or preferences.
4. Functionalism suggests that re-establishing equilibrium can best solve most social problems.

macro theory

more concerned with the overall picture than any specific or smaller parts

structural functionalist view of education's purposes

1. Selection/Sorting
2. Socialization
3. Job Training

meritocracy

a system of rewards based on personal attributes (e.g., work ethic) and demonstrated abilities

manifest function

an intended function

human capital theory

argues that education is necessary to improve the economic or productive capacity of a population. The primary assumption here being that a well-educated population will be able to work more effectively, efficiently, and creatively/in innovative ways

bourgeoisie

the very wealthy who own the means of production

proletariat

those who must sell their labor to survive

conflict theory

society is made up of different groups with different interests and that they compete for power and resources.

often looks at various aspects of our social world and tries to explain them by looking at which groups have power and benefit from a particular social arrangement

four tenets of conflict theory

1. Generally, focuses on large, macro-level structures, such as the relations between or among socio-economic classes
2. Shows how major patterns of inequality in society produce social stability in some circumstances and social change in others
3. Stresses how members of privileged groups try to maintain their advantages while subordinate groups struggle to increase theirs. From this point of view, social conditions at a given time are the expression of an ongoing power struggle between privileged and subordinate groups
4. Typically leads to the suggestion that decreasing privilege will lower the level of conflict and increase the sum total of human welfare.

equality of opportunity

equal access/opportunity to the competition

equality of condition

differences in material conditions that make someone more or less likely tosucceed in the competition

overt

very clear, direct and not at all hidden

subtle

difficult to analyze or describe

systemic

related to the structures and systems of society itself

Pierre Bourdieu's capitals

1. Economic Capital: refers to one's economic resources like money, wealth, property, and so on
2. Social Capital: refers to one's social networks and the shared norms, values, and understanding tied to who one knows and associates with
3. Cultural Capital: refers to one's skills, tastes/preferences, habits, clothing, mannerisms, and other symbolic elements that reflect one's class.

latent effects

unintended consequences

hidden curriculum

another latent effect of the education system, socializing children to be obedient and not to question authority

microsociology

Concerned with the social psychological dynamics of individuals interacting. Concerned more with meaning and interaction than explaining large-scale problems

symbolic interactionism

Concerned more with meaning and interaction than explaining large-scale problems

The key is that human behavior is influenced by definitions and meanings that arecreated through interaction with others.

tenets of symbolic interactionism

1. focuses on face-to-face communication or interaction in micro-level social settings.
2. emphasizes that an adequate explanation of social behaviour requires understanding the subjective (i.e. personal) meanings people attach to their social circumstances
3. stresses that people help to create their social circumstances and do not merely react to them
4. validates unpopular and nonofficial viewpoints by underscoring the subjective meanings that people create in small social settings, increasing our understanding and tolerance of people who may be different than us

labeling theory

how we label something is intrinsically linked to how it is viewed and handled, including whether it is seen as a problem or not

self esteem

a positive or negative orientation toward oneself; an overall evaluation of one's worth or value

mastery

ones sense of having control over their life, of being able to accomplish goals and tasks they set their mind to, one's sense of being captain of one's own ship versus being at the whims of forces around them

grade chasing

the act of prioritizing the achievement of good grades above the actual process of learning, and the understanding of the material

growth vs. fixed mindset

individuals who believe their talents can be developed(through hard work, good strategies, and input from others) have a growth mindset. They are found to achieve more than those with a more fixed mindset (those who believe their talents are innate gifts)

instrumental/means-end rationality

choosing the most efficient, practical, and effective means to reach the desired end, which includes considering the conditions and other human beings that affect the ability to achieve the desired end

value rationality

Making decisions according to an ethical value that is seen as worth pursuing for its own sake regardless of the likelihood of success

rationalization

society was moving constantly more towards an instrumental rationality particularly as it moved away from religious motivations for actions

shrinkflation

the practice of reducing a product's amount or volume per unit while continuing to offer it at the same price

feminist theory

1. ...focuses on various aspects of patriarchy, the system of male domination in society. Patriarchy, feminists contend, is at least as important as class inequality in determining a person's opportunities in life, and perhaps more so
2. ...holds that male domination and female subordination are determined not by biological necessity but by structures of power and social convention. From this point of view, women are subordinate to men only because men enjoy more legal, economic, political, and cultural rights
3. ...examines the operation of patriarchy in both micro and macro settings
4. ...contends that existing patterns of gender inequality can and should be changed for the benefit of all members of society.

feminist critiques of education

1. Underrepresentation in Positions of Power
2. Gender Representation in School Activities
3. Sexual Harassment

hostile hallways

educational settings where sexual comments, leers/stares, inappropriate jokes, and invasions of personal space are accepted by school authority figures as 'natural' or 'normal' things teenage boys do

critical race theory

1. Race is a socially constructed and NOT a biologically grounded category. It is used to oppress and exploit people of color.
2. Racism is a normal, persistent, and defining characteristic of social institutions including politics, the legal system, the economy, and all other societal institutions/structures.
3. Progress on racial issues occurs primarily during periods of interest convergence
4. Individuals cannot be adequately understood by their membership in separate marginalized communities. In other words, marginalization is intersectional

interest convergence

when marginalized group interests are taken up by the dominant group only due to it fitting their own interests

intersectionality

membership in multiple marginalized communities compounds and/or multiplies the negative repercussions an individual faces as a result

statistical interactions

when the effect of one variable depends on another variable

brain drain

VOLUNTARY migration; how developing countries are disadvantaged by losing their wealthiest and most educated citizens to emigration

culture

The way that non-material objects—like thoughts, action, language, and values—come together with material objects to form a way of life

material culture

all physical & tangible objects that reflect and define a way of life, including tools, weapons, utensils, machines, art, jewelry, clothing, religious objects, physical art, books, architecture, food, and so on

non-material culture

all non-physical/non-tangible objects that reflect and define a way of life, including a culture's ideas, beliefs, behaviors, gestures, norms, morals, spoken language, and so on

What are the 3 components of non-material culture?

1. Symbols: anything that carries a specific meaning that is recognized by people who share a culture.
2. Values: Cultural Standards that people use to decide what's good or bad, what's right or wrong, they serve as the ideals and guidelines that we live by
3. Norms: The rules and expectations that guide behavior within a society

3 types of norms

1. Folkways: unwritten, informal rules and expectations that guide behavior. Often based on tradition and customs. For example, shaking hands, what different types of clothes mean, what language to use in what contexts.
2. Mores: More official than folkways and are rooted in morality, they tend to be codified or formalized as stated rules and laws of a society but can be more informal.
3. Taboos: The norms that are crucial to a society's moral center, involving behaviors that are always negatively sanctioned (does NOT include murder).

abstract quality of culture

non-Culture simultaneously plays an immense role in all our lives while at the same time it does NOT truly exist/ is not tangible

post-modernism

A broad and somewhat intentionally difficult to define term, typically applied to the arts and philosophy that is skeptical of 'objective' universal explanations of how society and culture operate

subjectivity

truth & facts based on a person's own mind, feelings/emotions, biases, perspectives, and ideas

hyperreality

the inability to separate reality from its representation; i.e. when a representation distorts reality or does not actually represent a true reality, yet it nonetheless comes to create that reality

ubiquity of culture

Culture is something that touches and affects all of us, and that each of us influence in small ways through what we wear, what we post, what we believe, what we reject, everything. In this sense, the collective 'we' have complete control over culture

obstinance of culture

Yet at the same time, culture is not controllable by any person or group of people. It exists independent of each of us, and despite how hard we try, our ability to influence it will always be limited

even if we create the idea, once society knows about it, it is no longer under our control (EX: MeToo movement)

cultural transmission

the process by which culture is passed down from one generation to the next, this occurs through socialization

socialization

the lifelong process of an individual learning the expected norms and customs of a group or society through social interaction

primary socialization

the passing of knowledge, beliefs, values, behaviors, norms, language, and soon from close family and friends

path dependency

when the outcome of a process depends on its past history, on a sequence of decisions made by agents and resulting outcomes, and not only on contemporary conditions

sex positivity movement

sex positivity is the idea that people should have space to embody, explore, and learn about their sexuality and gender without judgment or shame

cultural lag

the notion that culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, and that social problems and conflicts are caused by this lag

popular culture

The cultural behaviors and ideas that are popular with the majority of people in a society

mainstream culture

The cultural patterns that are broadly in line with a society's cultural ideals and values

subcultures

Cultural patterns that set apart a segment of society's population

are NOT always countercultures

countercultures

cultures that push back on mainstream and/or popular culture in an attempt to change how a society operates

are always subcultures

secondary socialization

when a child learns the values, beliefs and attitudes of their culture through those outside of the family, such as teachers, friends and the media

cultural displacement

people who have moved regions or immigrated report after some time that they no longer feel accepted by the prior culture or their new one

cultural diffusion

a social process resulting in the transfer of beliefs, values, and social activities (e.g. games or sports) from one society to another

globalization

the Worldwide flow and integration of culture, economies, media, and technology due to advances in communication systems and economic interests

liquid modernity

how due to technological developments and increased cultural diffusion, all culture is in an increasingly constant state of flux and change with no ability to impose order or stability on it

Why do newer generations not believe in science?

1. Newer generations are more skeptical and critically think more.
2. Increasing use of the internet and social media as sources of evidence.
3. The feedback loop relationship between media, politicians, and the news

feedback loop

when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be said to feed back into itself

Why did mass media grow in the Western world?

1. the Protestant Reformation, which promoted literacy
2. the expansion of democracy, which promoted involvement and interest in political matters
3. Capitalist industrialization, which created the expansion of media as a source of profit

functionalist view of media

1. to coordinate the operation of industrial and postindustrial societies
2. to act as agents of socialization
3. to engage in social control by helping ensure conformity
4. to provide entertainment

narcotization

A situation in which people become so overwhelmed by the amount of information they receive that they become numb - for example to negative news or tragedies

conflict theory view of media

1. Media broadcast beliefs, values, and ideas that often create widespread acceptance of basic structure of society, including its injustices and inequalities
2. Ownership of traditional and new media is highly concentrated in hands of small number of people and is highly profitable for them (CTV, Globe Media, Rogers, Shaw for traditional media)

hegemony

the social, cultural, ideological, or economic influence exerted by a dominant group

cultural imperialism

When one society's media exert overwhelming and unilateral influence over another society's culture

tribalism

the state or tendency to gather and reinforce ideas belonging to a group, and to do so out of a sense of strong loyalty

leads to polarization

economic inequality

who is rich and who is poor and how we measure the inequality or difference between these two categories

operationalizing

turning abstract concepts into measurable observations

dunning-kruger effect

a cognitive bias whereby people with limited knowledge or competence in a given intellectual or social domain greatly overestimate their own knowledge or competence in that domain

Consumer Price Index

measures inflation each month. It sets inflation based on the price of a 'typical basket of goods'

2 types of income measurement

1. Average income (the problem with the average is that it is highly influenced by very high scores)
2. Median income

active income

Income gained by exchanging time for money usually through a paid job or self-employment