Human Anatomy and Physiology 1 Exam 3

What is the primary function of the nervous system?

To act as the body's communication and control system, responsible for processing sensory information and coordinating responses.

What are the two main parts of the nervous system?

The Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

What does the Central Nervous System (CNS) include?

The brain and spinal cord.

What is the role of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

It connects the CNS to the limbs and organs and includes sensory and motor pathways.

What are the divisions of the motor division in the PNS?

The somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

What does the somatic nervous system control?

Voluntary movements, such as skeletal muscle actions.

What are the two components of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

The sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) systems.

What are neurons?

The functional units of the nervous system that transmit electrical signals.

What components make up a neuron?

Cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, and axon terminals.

What are neuroglia?

Support cells in the nervous system that maintain homeostasis and provide structural support.

Name one type of neuroglia and its function.

Astrocytes, which support neurons and maintain the blood-brain barrier.

What is action potential?

A rapid, self-propagating electrical signal that travels along the axon when a neuron is stimulated.

What occurs during depolarization of a neuron?

Sodium channels open, allowing Na⁺ ions to rush into the cell.

What is hyperpolarization?

When the membrane potential temporarily becomes more negative than the resting potential.

What is the function of myelin sheaths?

To speed up the transmission of action potentials through saltatory conduction.

What is a synapse?

The junction between neurons or between a neuron and a target cell.

What are neurotransmitters?

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses.

What is the role of the cerebrum?

Responsible for higher functions like reasoning, memory, and voluntary movement.

What is the primary role of the cerebellum?

To coordinate voluntary movements and maintain balance.

What functions does the brainstem regulate?

Basic life-sustaining functions like heart rate, respiration, and reflexes.

What does the thalamus do?

Acts as the brain's relay station, processing and sending sensory information to the cortex.

What is neuroplasticity?

The ability of the nervous system to adapt and reorganize in response to injury, learning, or experience.

What are reflex arcs?

Pathways through which reflexes occur, involving sensory receptors, neurons, and effectors.

What is the primary function of sensory pathways?

To carry sensory information from the body to the CNS.

What does the motor division of the PNS do?

Carries commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.

How do mechanoreceptors function?

They respond to mechanical pressure or distortion and detect touch and pressure.

What do thermoreceptors detect?

Changes in temperature.

What do nociceptors respond to?

Painful stimuli, such as extreme temperatures or tissue damage.

Where are photoreceptors located?

In the retina of the eye.

What do proprioceptors provide information about?

The position and movement of the body and its parts.

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex?

Responsible for executive functions including decision-making, planning, and impulse control.

What is Broca’s area responsible for?

Speech production and articulation.

What does the primary somatosensory cortex process?

Sensory input from the skin and proprioceptors of skeletal muscles.

What does the hippocampus contribute to?

The formation and retrieval of long-term memories.

What part of the brain controls autonomic functions like heart rate and breathing?

The medulla oblongata.

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

Regulates homeostasis and controls the autonomic nervous system.

What are the meninges?

Three protective layers surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

What is the blood-brain barrier?

A selective barrier that protects the brain from harmful substances in the blood.

What can damage to the temporal lobe cause?

Issues with auditory processing or language comprehension (Wernicke's aphasia).

What does the occipital lobe primarily process?

Visual information.

What is the function of the cingulate cortex?

Processes emotional and pain-related information.

Name one disorder associated with the basal ganglia.

Parkinson’s disease.

How is sensory information processed?

Through a series of pathways from sensory receptors to the brain.

What is sensory adaptation?

The process where sensory receptors become less sensitive to a constant stimulus.

What is the primary responsibility of the auditory cortex?

To process sound features such as pitch, volume, and tone.

What role does the amygdala play in the brain?

Regulates emotions, especially fear and pleasure responses.

What does the term 'lateralization' refer to?

The specialization of certain functions in one hemisphere of the brain.

Which hypothesis explains the separation of functions between the left and right hemispheres?

Hemispheric specialization.

Where is the primary visual cortex located?

In the occipital lobe.

What is the significance of the sensory homunculus?

It represents the mapping of sensory input from different body regions onto the primary somatosensory cortex.

What type of receptors detect chemical changes in the body?

Chemoreceptors.

How are sensory receptors categorized based on their location?

Into exteroceptors, interoceptors, and proprioceptors.

What happens when an action potential travels along a sensory neuron?

It carries information to the CNS for processing.

What do muscle spindles detect?

Muscle stretch.

What is the role of the spinal cord?

To carry motor commands from the brain to the body and sensory information from the body to the brain.

What leads to reflex actions?

A reflex arc involving sensory receptors, interneurons, and motor neurons.

What can damage in the primary motor cortex result in?

Paralysis or loss of voluntary movement in specific body regions.

What is the primary function of the primary motor cortex?

To initiate and control voluntary muscle movements.

What role does the premotor cortex play in movement?

Helps plan and coordinate complex movements.

How does the hypothalamus influence the endocrine system?

By coordinating hormone release through the pituitary gland.

What type of signals do neurotransmitters facilitate across synapses?

Chemical signals.

Where do signal processing and perception occur?

Primarily in the brain's sensory areas.

How are sensory pathways involved in perceiving the environment?

They relay sensory input to the CNS for interpretation and conscious perception.

What can occur as a result of injuries to the sensory pathways?

Sensory disorders such as sensory neuropathy.

What is the main purpose of the protective features of the brain?

To ensure optimal functioning and safeguard against injury.

What is the difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?

Excitatory neurotransmitters depolarize the post-synaptic cell, while inhibitory neurotransmitters hyperpolarize it.

What is a major characteristic of the brain's cerebral cortex?

It integrates diverse information across different functional areas.

What is the role of the occipital lobe in vision?

To process and interpret visual stimuli from the eyes.

What happens to neurotransmitters after they bind to receptors?

They can excite or inhibit the post-synaptic cell based on their type.

What is Wernicke’s area responsible for?

Language comprehension.

What bodily functions does the autonomic nervous system control?

Involuntary functions such as heart rate and digestion.

What three layers make up the meninges?

Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater.

What condition could result from damage to the hippocampus?

Anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories).

What is the primary role of the cerebellum?

To coordinate voluntary movements and maintain balance.

What do dorsal and ventral horns in the spinal cord contain?

Dorsal horns contain sensory neurons, and ventral horns contain motor neurons.

What observations are made in sensory transduction?

Receptors convert external stimuli into electrical signals.

What type of information is processed by the somatosensory cortex?

Touch, pressure, pain, and temperature.

How does the thalamus support sensory processing?

By relaying sensory information to appropriate cortical areas.

What kind of stimuli do mechanoreceptors respond to?

Mechanical pressure or distortion.

What key function does the basal ganglia serve?

It regulates voluntary movements and is involved in procedural learning.

What is one way the brainstem functions in the body?

By regulating essential life functions like heart rate and respiration.

What results from dysfunction in the substantia nigra?

Dysfunction can be linked to Parkinson’s disease.

What change occurs in photoreceptors in response to light adaptation?

They adjust sensitivity to changes in light intensity.

What likely happens to neurotransmitter levels in the synaptic cleft after their release?

They decrease as they bind to postsynaptic receptors and are then broken down or reabsorbed.

What is the impact of the blood-brain barrier?

It protects the brain from harmful substances while allowing necessary nutrients to pass.

What brain region is most involved in emotional regulation?

The amygdala.

What distinctive function does the primary auditory cortex serve?

To process various features of sound such as volume and pitch.

What role does the cerebellum play in learning?

It facilitates motor learning and skill acquisition.

How do the left and right hemispheres communicate?

Through the corpus callosum.

What is an example of a sensory disorder?

Sensory neuropathy.

What are the effects of degeneration in the basal ganglia?

It can lead to disorders like Huntington’s disease.

What is the role of the somatosensory association area?

To integrate sensory information and recognize objects by touch.

What can damage to the association areas of the cerebral cortex lead to?

Impairments in complex behaviors and cognitive functions.

What is the function of the visual association areas of the occipital lobe?

To integrate visual information into meaningful perceptions.

What does the prefix ‘pro-’ in proprioceptors indicate about their function?

They provide feedback on body position and movement.

What functions are the pons involved in?

Regulating sleep, respiration, and facilitating signals between the cerebrum and cerebellum.

How does the brain process sensory input for a conscious perception?

By integrating information from different sensory modalities within specific brain areas.

What could occur due to damage in the left hemisphere's Wernicke's area?

Fluent but nonsensical speech and impaired comprehension.

What physiological attribute do astrocytes provide to neurons?

Support and maintenance of the blood-brain barrier.

What signifies the end of a reflex arc process?

The motor neurons sending commands to muscles or glands to elicit a response.