unit 4

Origins of the Scientific Revolution

Most beliefs about the natural world came from Ancient Greece, especially Aristotle.

Aristotle’s Cosmology

Taught that Earth was the center of the universe, surrounded by crystal spheres with planets and stars.

Church Support of Geocentrism

The Catholic Church supported Aristotle’s model because it aligned with Genesis 1.

Causes of Scientific Revolution

Establishment of universities during medieval times, renaissance, printing press

Universities and the Scientific Revolution

Medieval universities helped cause the Scientific Revolution by preserving and teaching Greek texts.

Islamic Scholars’ Role

Islamic scholars preserved and amended Aristotelian texts that formed the base of university curricula.

Rise of Math in Universities

14th–15th century: European universities added math departments, leading to new ways of thinking.

Natural Philosophy

The study of the natural world; paired with math, it sparked new methods of understanding.

Renaissance and Scientific Study

Wealthy patrons funded studies of the natural world during the Renaissance.

Printing Press Impact

The printing press allowed rapid spread of new scientific ideas.

Geocentric Model

Earth is fixed at the center of the universe; supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Used math to challenge geocentrism; proposed the heliocentric model (Sun-centered universe).

Copernicus’s Contribution

Suggested Earth rotates on an axis, causing the appearance of the Sun rising and setting.

Johannes Kepler

Built on Copernicus’s work; used math to establish laws of planetary motion.

Kepler’s First Law

Planets orbit the sun in ellipses, not perfect circles.

Kepler’s Second Law

Planets move faster when closer to the sun and slower when farther away.

Kepler’s Third Law

A planet’s orbital time is related to its distance from the sun.

Galileo Galilei

Built a telescope; observed moons and planet surfaces, proving they were material like Earth.

Galileo’s Observations

Disproved the idea that celestial bodies were pure light; showed they were physical.

Scientific Challenge to Authority

New astronomy overturned Aristotelian views and challenged Church authority.

Church Response

Church opposed these views as they contradicted scripture; banned books by Galileo and Luther.

Heliocentric Model

Accepted By 1640, heliocentrism and the work of Kepler and Galileo were accepted by the scientific community.

Isaac Newton

Unified physics and astronomy with universal gravitation.

Revolution in Anatomy

Old Greek understanding of the body were being overturned in the favor of newer, more accurate understandings

Galen

Ancient physician who theorized that health was based on the balance of four humors aka Human Theory

Paracelsus

Believed disease was caused by chemical imbalances, not humors.

Andreas Vesalius

Disproved Galen by conducting human dissections and improving anatomical understanding.

William Harvey

Discovered that blood circulates through the body, pumped by the heart.

Francis Bacon

Developed inductive reasoning and the empirical method.

Empiricism

the pursuit of knowledge through inductive reasoning (understanding the world first by observing the smallest part of it and then generalizing those findings to the largest parts)

René Descartes

Created deductive reasoning and emphasized doubt and reason ("I think, therefore I am").

Persistance of old believers

Some path finders of the New science still held onto beliefs in alchemy and astrology

Alchemy

attempt to turn base metals into gold and silver

Astrology

Study of celestial bodies' influence on humans

Enlightenment

18th-century intellectual movement using reason to improve society.

• CAUSEE BY SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

Rationalism

Everything in human life could and should be submitted to the process of reason

Believes of Enlightenment thinkers

believed that the scientific method could be used to discover the laws of society

Where is the Enlightenment begin?

France

Montesquieu

Advocated for separation of powers in government in his book “Separation of Laws”

Voltaire

Criticized the Church and supported religious tolerance and a limited monarchy.

Diderot

Editor of the Encyclopedia, spreading Enlightenment ideas.

What helped spread the enlightenment?

Books, salon, coffeehouses

Salon

Private meetings held in opulent houses where the intelligencia openly discussed and debated the ideas of the day

Coffeehouses

Folks gathered, bought coffee and discussed the new ideas of the day (for those who were less well off)

John Locke

Argued for natural rights: life, liberty, and property.

Rousseau

Promoted the Social Contract—government should reflect the general will of the people.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Early feminist who demanded equal education and rights for women. Wrote the vindication of the rights of women

Adam Smith

Father of capitalism; advocated for free markets and laissez-faire economics, Wealth of nations

Physiocrats

French economic thinkers opposed to mercantilism, promoted agriculture-based economies.

Deism

Belief that God created the universe but does not interfere with it.

David Hume

Promoted skepticism; argued we cannot know anything without sensory evidence.

Diderot (atheism)

Openly atheist; challenged religious authority.

Pietism

Movement emphasizing emotional religious experiences and piety.

What was German Pietism, and who led it?

German Pietism (17th–18th century) was a religious movement led by Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf. It emphasized that true religious experience came from a mystical, personal relationship with Christ, not just church membership. Zinzendorf opposed the rationalistic Lutheran approach common in Germany at the time.

Methodism

Founded by John Wesley; emphasized personal faith and spiritual rebirth.

Population growth in 18th century

Caused by more food, better infrastructure, and the end of the plague.

Agricultural Revolution

New farming techniques, crop rotation, and enclosures increased food production.

Enclosure movement

Landowners fenced off common land; displaced peasant farmers.

Jethro Tull

Invented the seed drill and promoted scientific farming.

Marriage in 18th century

Nuclear families and late marriages due to economic factors.

Enlightenment on childhood

Emphasized childhood as a unique, formative stage.

Urbanization

Migration to cities due to reduced rural labor needs; led to overcrowding and disease.

Tenements

• Hastily constructed apartment buildings which had rooms that workers could rent for a low price

  • Not Ventilated well and no indoor plumbing

  • Led to development of Tuberculosis and its rapid spread occurring due to lack of ventilation

  • Due to the lack of plumbing, waste was thrown to the streets

    • stinky and unsanitary cities

Consumer Revolution

Increase in demand for goods and household items among the middle class.

How did privacy in the home change after the Consumer Revolution?

Before the Consumer Revolution, homes were small with multi-purpose rooms and shared spaces (often one-room houses). After the revolution, homes had multiple rooms with specific functions, such as the boudoir for women, increasing the sense and value of privacy.

What was the purpose of a boudoir in post-Consumer Revolution homes?

A boudoir was a private room for the wife to be alone or entertain other women, reflecting the new value placed on privacy.

What role did coffeehouses play in leisure during the 18th century?

Coffeehouses were public spaces open to men of all classes where revolutionary ideas were discussed. The Columbian Exchange made coffee more accessible and popular in Europe.

What types of spectator sports gained popularity in urban areas during the 18th century?

Blood sports such as bull-baiting and cockfighting became popular forms of urban entertainment.

Reading Revolution

Spread of books, newspapers, and secular literature; reduced Church’s control over knowledge.

Revolution in Art

Shifted from the celebration of religious themes and royal power of kings to an emphasis on the private life and the public good

Baroque Art

Baroque art promoted religious feeling and was used by monarchs to display state power through ostentatious and grand imagery.

Why did monarchs and the Church support Baroque art?

They supported it because its grandeur made them appear powerful and majestic, reinforcing authority and religious awe.

Who was Bernini and what was his contribution to Baroque art?

Bernini was a leading Baroque artist who designed grand chapels and the piazzas for Saint Peter’s Basilica in Rome.

What role did Johann Sebastian Bach play in Baroque art?

Bach composed music for royal courts and high church services, reinforcing Baroque themes of power and spirituality.

How did art shift in the 18th century?

Art began to focus on the bourgeoisie (middle class), emphasizing material values and everyday life over religious or royal themes.

Neoclassicism

Art style focused on symmetry and simplicity, inspired by classical antiquity.

Rembrandt

Baroque artist who painted everyday people and scenes.

Literature

Faced a shift along with the arts as it began to emphasize Enlightenment and commercial values of the Bourgeois Society as well

Daniel Defoe

Author of Robinson Crusoe, reflecting bourgeois values and individualism.

Goethe

German author of Faust, blending Enlightenment and Romantic themes.

Enlightened absolutism

Monarchs adopted Enlightenment reforms while maintaining power.

Frederick the Great

Prussian king who promoted religious tolerance, legal reform, and cameralism.

Cameralism

Belief that the monarchy should serve the people and promote public welfare.

Limits of Toleration: Jews

Religious Toleration: Markers of Enlightened Absolutism

Jews did not enjoy religious toleration and were marginalized by law in Europe

Jewish Enlightenment Movement: Haskalah

Argued that the widespread religious intolerance of the Jews was unfitting for the enlightened atmosphere in Europe

Joseph II of Austria

fully embraced the call for Jewish freedom

Allowed them to serve in the military or acquire a higher education

Abolished the distinguished symbols that Jews were made to wear

Frederick and Catherine the Great

Rejected any easing of anti-Jewish policies in their states
After Catherine acquired a larger population from Poland’s Partition, she created a separate district where all the Jews were required to live