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Compound
A substance formed from two or more individual elements combining in a fixed ratio.
Ionic bonds
Bonds formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in oppositely charged ions.
Covalent bonds
Bonds formed when electrons are shared between atoms, typically between nonmetals.
Nonpolar covalent bond
A type of covalent bond where electrons are shared equally between atoms.
Polar covalent bond
A type of covalent bond where electrons are shared unequally between atoms.
Structural formula
A representation of atoms and bonding in a molecule, e.g., H-H.
Molecular formula
An abbreviation of the structural formula, e.g., H2.
Electronegativity
An atom's attraction for the electrons in a covalent bond.
Hydrogen bonds
Weak attractions between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom and another electronegative atom.
Van der Waals interactions
Weak attractions between molecules due to asymmetrical electron distribution.
Cohesion
The tendency of water to stick to itself, important for processes like transpiration.
Adhesion
The tendency of water to stick to other substances, contributing to capillary action.
Surface tension
The result of cohesion among water molecules, allowing some organisms to sit on water without sinking.
High heat capacity
The ability of water to resist temperature changes, stabilizing environments.
High heat of vaporization
The amount of heat required for a liquid to convert to gas, contributing to evaporative cooling.
Expansion on freezing
The phenomenon where water expands when it freezes, allowing ice to float.
Hydrophobic substances
Substances that do not dissolve in water.
Hydrophilic substances
Substances that do dissolve in water.
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars, such as glucose and fructose, that serve as building blocks for carbohydrates.
Disaccharides
Formed by the combination of two monosaccharides through dehydration synthesis.
Polysaccharides
Long chains of monosaccharides, such as starch and cellulose.
Amino acids
The monomers of proteins, containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Peptide bond
The bond formed between amino acids during dehydration synthesis.
Polypeptides
Chains of amino acids that fold into proteins.
Primary structure
The linear sequence of amino acids in a protein.
Secondary structure
The coiling or folding of a polypeptide chain, forming alpha-helices or beta-pleated sheets.
Tertiary structure
The overall 3D shape of a protein formed by interactions between R groups.
Quaternary structure
The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains in a protein.
Denaturation
The process where a protein loses its shape and function due to environmental changes.
Chaperone proteins
Proteins that assist in the proper folding of other proteins.
Triglycerides
Lipids made of glycerol and three fatty acid chains.
Saturated fatty acid
A fatty acid with no double bonds, typically solid at room temperature.
Unsaturated fatty acid
A fatty acid with one or more double bonds, typically liquid at room temperature.
Phospholipids
Molecules with hydrophobic tails and a hydrophilic head, forming cell membranes.
Nucleic acids
Macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information, including DNA and RNA.
Nucleotide
The monomer of nucleic acids, consisting of a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate group.
RNA world hypothesis
The theory that early life forms were based on RNA molecules capable of replication.
Organic synthesis
The process by which organic compounds are formed, often involving dehydration synthesis.
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