Enlightenment - emphasized reason over tradition and individualism over community values; ideals of this movement such as freedom, individualism, and self-determination challenged the roles of monarchs and church leaders; planted seeds of revolution
Scientific Revolution and the Renaissance - humanism and while not denying the existence of God, emphasized human accomplishments and the natural world; natural laws governed social and political spheres
The Age of Isms - socialism, and liberalism; opposing side is conservatism
Nationalism - intense loyalty to others who share one’s language and culture, should live in an independent nation-state; led to revolutions for independence from imperial powers and constitutional representation
Empiricism - Francis Bacon; belief knowledge comes from experience and experiments; based conclusions on observation of natural data rather than relying on reasoning from tradition or religion
Hobbes - political life as a result of a social contract; by agreeing to a social contract, people gave up some rights to a strong central government in return for law and order
Locke - social contract implied the right or responsibility of citizens to revolt against the unjust government; natural rights to life, liberty, and pursuit of property
- Tabula rasa - children are born with a blank slate to be filled with knowledge; emphasis on environment and education in shaping people
The Philosophes - a new group of thinkers and writers who explored social, political, and economic theories
Baron Montesquieu - writers of the new constitution in France and America; praised British use of checks and balances with Parliament; influenced the American system by separating its executive branch from its legislative and third branch
Voltaire - advocacy of civil liberties, religious liberty, and judicial reform in France
Jean-Jacques Rousseau - expanded on the idea of social contract; General Will of people, believed society could improve
Adam Smith - called mercantilism freer trade; supported some government regulations, benefits of taxes, and advocated for laissez-faire; governments should reduce intervention in the economy and believed businesses and consumers should make choices in their own interests to guide a market beneficial for society; provided foundation for capitalism where production are privately owned and operated for profit
Deism - the belief that a divinity simply set natural laws in motion and does not interfere
Thomas Paine - defense of Deism; wrote Common Sense for advocating liberty from Britain and anti-church writings
Conservatism - belief in traditional institutions and favored reliance on practical experience over ideological theories; blamed the poor themselves for poverty
Utopian socialism - a system of public or direct worker ownership of the means of production
- Henri de Saint-Simon - work that produces things useful to society, public works
- Charles Fourier - work should be enjoyable and less tiring
- Robert Owen - established intentional communities w/ utopian socialism
Classical liberalism - belief in natural rights, constitutional government, laissez-faire economics, reduced spending on armies and established churches
Feminism - women’s rights and quality
- Olympe de Gouges - during the French Revolution; “Declaration of the Rights of Women and of the (Female) Citizen”
- Mary Wollstonecraft - “Vindication of the Rights of Women”; females should get same education as males; universal education would let women participate in society to support themselves rather than relying on men; same rights as men
- Seneca Falls - activists gathered to promote women’s rights and suffrage; demanded women deserved right to vote, hold office, hold property and manage incomes, and be legal guardians to their children; “all men and women are created equal”
Abolitionism - provide rights and equality with freedom of slaves and end of serfdom and Atlantic slave trade; slave trade stopped → slavery declined
End of serfdom - declining as economy changed from agrarian to industrial and peasant revolts pushed leaders to reform
Zionism - desire of Jews to reestablish independent homeland; battling anti-semitism —> needed to control their own land; Dreyfus Affair where Jewish military officer was convicted of treason against the French government by was based on forged documents by people promitung anti-semitism; land desired was controlled by the Ottoman Empire and Palestinian Arabs who were Muslim

Topic 5.2: Nationalism and Revolutions

American Revolutions - inspired by Enlightenment philosophy and physiocrats, providing defense of free market ideas opposing mercantilism; American colonists were independent politically, separated from the king and Parliament
- Declaration of Independence - expressed philosophy behind colonist fight against British rule; unalienable rights from John Locke including right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness
New Zealand Wars - New Zealand occupied by Polynesian people; colonization by British and control over Maori affairs; wars between Maori and the British, British victory
French Revolution - “liberty, equality, fraternity”; after French aid to the American revolution they held a meeting of Estates-General for economic problems but had inequality in voting, caused the commoners to form the National Assembly; wanted to establish a constitutional monarchy; stormed the Bastille that symbolized abuses of the monarchy and corrupt aristocracy; king forced to accept a new government with a National Assembly in charge
- Declaration of the Rights of Man - declared basic human rights; abolition of feudalism
- Louis XVI refused to accept limited monarchy and dissatisfied radical groups, inspired the First French Republic
- Reign of Terror - government executed opponents of the revolution
Haitian Revolution - Haiti was a French sugar and coffee colony; slaves revolted against white masters, joined by Maroons (escaped slaves), established an independent government w/ constitution that granted equality and citizenship to residents inspired by Toussaint L'Ouverture; land reform where plantations and land were being distributed among enslaved and free black people; first country in Latin America to win its independence and the first black-led country in the Western Hemisphere from slave uprising
- Haitian and French revolutions - inspired by Enlightenment w/ insistence that men had natural rights; Haitians had more severe restraints w/ slaves that had no rights at all
Creole Revolutions in Latin America - born of European ancestry, considered superior to mestizos, and desired independence from Spain; creoles opposed Spain’s mercantilism, wanted more political power after power went to peninsulares, and mestizos wanted political power and wealth
Bolivar Revolutions - creoles wanted independence from Spain but refused support of mestizos, indigenous people, and mulattos; constitutions of newly independent countries legally ended social distinctions and slavery, but remained conservative
- Simon Bolivar - pushed for Enlightenment ideals in Latin America
- Manuela Saenz - actively participated with Simon Bolivar and rose to rank of colonel
Challenges to Spanish colonialism - Puerto Rico and Cuba saw uprisings against Spanish rule influenced by Lola Rodriguez de Tio
Propaganda movement - education was limited and controlled by religious authorities in the Philippines; embraced Enlightenment thinking, advocated greater autonomy for the Philippines
Italian unification - Count di Cavour drove to unite the entire Italian peninsula under the House of Savoy; used to be divided among kingdoms and city-states; believed in natural rights, progress, and constitutional monarchy
- Realpolitik - politics of reality; advanced Italy unity with manipulation; made Napoleon III fight Austria to weaken Austrian influence
- Giuseppe Mazzini - Cavour adopted radical romantic revolutionary philosophy of Mazzini who agitated for Italian resurgence
- Red Shirts Military - led by Giuseppe Garibaldi who were fighting south in the Kingdom of Naples
German unification - nationalist movements opposed French occupation of German states; Prussian leader Otto von Bismarck favored realpolitik and used nationalism to engineer 3 wars for unification → Austria with Prussia against Denmark and then against Prussia, manipulated France against Prussia → Prussia gained territory and German Empire was founded
Global consequences - Italy and Germany were on international stage for competing alliances and extreme nationalism; poverty in Italy encouraged immigration to the United States and Argentina
Balkan nationalism - Ottoman empire was dominant until it declined and with increasing contact with the Western European ideals, Balkan nationalism developed; Greece had exposure to Enlightenment principles and reawakened Greek cultural pride and nationalism → Greek independence from Ottomans; waning of Ottoman control led to freedom and influx of new ideas
Ottoman nationalism - aimed to create a modern and unified state by minimizing ethnic, linguistic, and religious differences; actually intensified people’s feelings of difference and promoted desire of independence

Topic 5.3: Industrial Revolution Begins

Industrialization - increased mechanization of production and social changes
Agricultural revolution - increased productivity; crop rotation and seed drill increased food production; introduction of potatoes; populations grew because there was more food, people lived longer and were able to work in factories to provide market for manufactured goods
Preindustrial societies - lived in rural areas, grew their food, made their own clothes; commercial revolution and maritime empires introduced Indian cotton; investors in Britain began to build their own cotton cloth industry → cottage industry; home spinning gave women weavers some independence but was slow; investors demanded faster production
Growth of technology - spinning jenny and water frame reduced time needed to weave cloth, was more efficient than a single person’s labor → doomed household textile cottage industry and production was moved to factories; interchangeable parts by Eli Whitney so if specific components broke, it could be replaced with an identical part → division and specialization of labor bc factory owners didn’t have to rely on skilled laborers, developed assembly line
British industrial advantages - located on Atlantic Ocean with seaways that imported raw materials and exported goods; mineral resources such as coal as energy source; resources from colonies and wealth from the trans-Atlantic slave trade, had excess capital; rivers for canals and harbors, tansport of raw materials and products; strong fleets for defense and trade; legal protection of private property; growing population and urbanization, became industrial workforce after enclosure movement limited land for farmers

Topic 5.4: Industrialization Spreads

France and Germany - after the French revolution, sparsely populated urban centers and delayed industrial revolution; Germany was fragmented into small states and delayed industrialization but became a producer of steel and coal
The United States - leading industrial force; human capital (workforce) was key; political upheaval and poverty brought immigrants to the USA from Europe and East Asia, provided labor force for factories
Russia - focused on railroads and exports; Trans-Siberian Railroad connected commercial and industrial areas, made trade easy; coal, iron, and steel developed
Japan - first Asian country to industrialize; defensive modernization and adapted technology by Europeans to protect traditional culture
Shipbuilding in India and Southeast Asia - resurgence in India due to political alliances with western countries suffered with British mismanagement of resources and ineffective leadership
Iron works in India - company rule where British East India Company controlled parts of India; tariffs led to decline of India’s ability to mine metals; Arms Act restricted access to minerals and production of firearms; lack of technological innovation and led to labor-intensive method of mining
Textile production in India and Egypt - first to produce and trade textiles and flourished; Lancaster textile mills in Britain forced British government in India to impose a equalizing tax to undermine profitability; Egypt lost export and domestic markets

Topic 5.5: Technology in the Industrial Age

The Coal Revolution - new machinery benefitted from a new power source; the steam engine provided an inexpensive way to harness coal power to create steam which generated energy for machinery in textile factories; coal made energy production mobile and dependable
Water transportation - steamships revolutionized sailing; coal-powered steam engines could be used on ships and trains; no longer dependent on winds for power and replaced sailing ships; coaling stations on critical points on trade routes
Iron - mass production of iron; coal improved processes that helped iron producers increase output
Second industrial revolution - The U.S., Great Britain, and Germany; steel, chemicals, machinery, and electronics
- Steel - mass production of steel w/ introduction of the Bessemer Process
- Oil - commercial oil wells for a new energy resource; petroleum was a new source from plant/animal remains; kerosene for lighting and heaters; precision machinery and internal combustion engine → automobile and airplane technologies
- Electricity - development of effective electrical generator
- Communications - development of electricity + electronics → communication technology; telephone by Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Edison; radio developed by Gugliemo Marconi, was able to receive signals across the Atlantic Ocean and became popular mass media
Railroads, steamships, and the telegraph made exploration, development, and communication possible
Transcontinental Railroad - connected Atlantic and Pacific oceans facilitated U.S. industrial growth; natural resources such as coal, iron, and oil, were transported efficiently

Topic 5.6: Industrialization: Government’s Role

Western domination and tech. → countries experienced difficulty keeping traditional values w/ modernization
Ottoman Empire - “sick man of Europe”; had not adopted Western technology or Enlightenment ideals; corruption led to decline and ethnic nationalism and diverse population led to unrest; Europeans saw opportunity to expand their own empires
China - Opium War and split into “spheres of influence” by Europeans; China shook off foreign domination and became a republic; central government too weak to promote industrialization
Japan - central government grew stronger when maintaining independence and territorial integrity against Western challenges; sought Western innovations to make it equal
Ottoman industrialization - overexpansion and failure to modernize → coups, declining trade, weakening leadership
- Muhammad Ali - selected as new governor of Egypt where the sultan lacked power after Mamluk rule; Ali was able to act independently from sultan; began making country’s military based on European model, established schools, sent military officers for education in France, and started an official newspaper; taxed peasants at high rates so government could control cotton production; securularized religious lands put agricultural produce in the hands of the government for large profits; pushed for industrialization and textile production
Japan - very little contact with the rest of the world, but imperial powers were not content; Britain, Netherlands, and Russia wanted to sell goods in Japan; Matthew Perry sailed to Japan for trade privileges for the U.S. and eventually gave in to demands, same for other foreign states; overthrew the shogun and restored power to the emperor in the Meiji Restoration
- Adopted reforms - abolished feudalism with Charter Oath, established constitutional monarchy, established equality before the law, reorganized military, new school systems, railroads and roads, subsidized industrialization; financed with high agricultural tax, revenue for the bureaucracy; replicated industrial society’s problems such as abuse and exploitation of female workers
- Private investments - from overseas; sold to zaibatsu, powerful Japanese family business organizations; encouraged innovation

Topic 5.7: Economic Developments and Innovations

Effects on business organizations - corporations formed to minimize risk, chartered by a government as a legal entity owned by stockholders and receive sums of money
- Monopoly - control of specific business and elimination of all competition; German steel industry; U.S. oil industry
- Bessemer process - efficient way to produce steel
Companies across boundaries - Cecil Rhodes was an investor in a railroad project in South Africa that connected all British-held colonies used for extracting resources and paid lower wages to African natives; Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, a British-owned bank opened in Hong Kong to focus of finance, investments, ang global banking; Unilever Corporation, British and Dutch, focused on household goods
Consumerism - developed among working and middle class of society and standards of living rose; producers began to advertise heavily to members with disposable income; leisure activities rose because of bleak industrial environments; athleticism was encouraged and sports developed along class lines such as tennis and golf in England for upper classes while rugby was played by lower classes; construction of music halls and arks for the mingling of classes and for lower classes to emulate civilized behavior

Topic 5.8: Reactions to the Industrial Economy

Harsh conditions provoked reforms - “Mother Jones” - described severe deprivation of coal miners; addresses inhumanity of industrial era and social reforms
Labor unions - organizations of workers that advocated for the right to bargain with employers and result in agreements; response to dangerous work conditions, low wages, and long hours; Great Britain unions organized in secret bc they were seen as enemies of trade until they became acceptable; improved worker’s lives by winning minimum wage laws, limits on hours worked, overtime pay, and five-day work week
Voting rights - sparked movement for empowerment of working class; reform bills to expand pool of men who could vote for more representation; reduced property ownership qualifications and laid foundation for expansion of the right to vote
Child labor - declared children under the age of 10 were banned from working in coal mines; education became mandatory; focus on education opposed to work redefined role of children in urban society
John Stuart Mill - criticized laissez-faire capitalism as inhumane to workers; legal reforms to allow labor unions, limit child labor, and ensure safe work conditions
- Utilitarianism - sought the greater good for the greatest number of people rather than timeless moral rules
Karl Marx - German scholar who argued for scientific socialism; Friedrich Engles wealthy supporter; published the Communist Manifesto that summarized critique of capitalism that it was an advance on feudalism because it produced wealth but also needless poverty; contradiction between wealth and poverty occurred because capitalism divided society into the proletariat, the working class, and the bourgeoisie, the middle class and investors (exploitation of the proletariat); bourgeoisie owned means of production; socialism should replace capitalism and class distinctions would end
Ottoman empire - sultan Mahmud II reformed Ottoman empire; abolished Janissaries and developed new artillery unit by Europeans, abolition of feudal system; builded roads and postal service; reorganization (tanzimat) to root out corruption, secular system of schools, new laws and commercial codes; Hatt-i Humayun updated legal system regulated by millets, separate legal courts; workers paid by cash rather than goods and financial enterprises increased
China - pressure to modernize; Self-Strengthening Movement, development of government to face internal and external problems, hope to strengthen China against foreign powers; stable government collecting revenue to allow China to repay debts and participate in trade; set up diplomatic corps and a customs service to collect taxes; defeat in the Sino-Japanese War called for change
- Emperor Guangxu - civil servant convinced ruler to support reforms in Hundred Days of Reform including abolition of civil service exam, corruption, and establishment of Western industrial, commercial, and medical systems
- Empress Dowager Cixi - conservative; opposed reforms and wanted to protect traditional social and government systems; imprisoned the emperor and repealed his reforms; feared influence of foreigners and resisted new technology
- Civil service - wealthy were using civil service for favors; revenue dropped as a result of bribes; non-qualified persons purchased civil service posts; abandoned after 2,500 years
- Foreign powers - Europeans had little gain and encouraged change but were met by conservatism and the 1900 Boxer Rebellion; weakened by internal rebellion and had to accept territorial protection from Western powers who demanded trade concessions; chose to become a republic; attempts to preserve territorial integrity benefited from the U.S. who maintained stability in Asia by preventing Japan from encroaching farther on its territory after the Russo-Japanese War exemplified by the Treaty of Portsmouth by Roosevelt
Japan - ended traditional system of authority; gave samurai final payment and legally dissolved their position; the bushido, code of conduct, was no longer condoned by the government; samurai served the government as genros, elder statesmen, while others resisted; new schools improved literacy rates, economy industrialized, country began to develop democracy with free press, labor unions, and respect for individual rights; army officers began to dominate

Topic 5.9: Society and the Industrial Age

Effects on urban areas - grew rapidly and left damaging ecological footprint created by inhumane living conditions for poorest residents; crowded into tenement apartment buildings in urban slums (low income family areas); disease, fire, and crime spread; municipalities created public health acts to implement sanitation and safety reforms; eventually led to increased living standards; middle class had increased access to goods, housing, culture, and education
Effects on class structures - bottom of social hierarchy were laborers in factories and coal mines, the working class viewed as replaceable and kept wages low; middle class emerged of factory and office managers, small business owners, and professionals and were white-collar workers; top of hierarchy were industrialists and owners of large corporations
Farm work vs factory work - family worked in close proximity when women worked in their own homes and landless workers farmed the fields of a landlord; industrial machinery made individuals leave their families and homes for long workdays; shrills in factories told workers when they could take a break which was a culture shock to former farmers who worked on their own schedules
Effects on children - low wages forced children to work; children could climb into equipment to make repairs or into tight spots in mines; labored in heat, carried heavy loads of coal, damage to lungs, mine collapses and flood threats
Effects on women - working-class women worked in coal mines and were primary laborers in textile factories, preferred because they were paid less; middle-class women had more limited lives and would stay home to become a housewife, idealized the female homemaker and domestic roles; spurred feminisms
Effects on environment - powered by fossil fuels; toxic air pollutants from coal-burning factories and deadly respiratory problems; water pollution; disease spread
Mass production - made goods cheaper, more abundant, and accessible; rural areas to cities where both low-skilled and high-skilled workers took advantage of new opportunities

Topic 5.10: Continuity and Change in the Industrial Age

Transformed production and consumption - in Western Europe, access to natural resources, trans-oceanic trade routes, and financial capital resulted in industrialization; the Scientific Revolution transferred knowledge to the West from the Islamic worked leading to inventions that would establish factories and mass production of goods; consumer goods were available, affordable, and in greater variety
The U.S., Russia, and Japan increased industrial production and built railroads; encouraged state sponsored efforts to modernize economies; Western Europe and the U.S. dominated global economy while manufacturing declined in Middle East and Asia
Raw materials - Latin America and Africa were sources of minerals and metals used in industrial processes; cotton from Egypt, South Asia, and Caribbean was exported to Great Britain and Europeancountries; Southeast Asia provided spices; sources of materials made possible by invention of steam ships and locomotives; trade made faster and cheaper, helped access and exploit untapped resources; movement of goods and people easy and cheaper
Western Europe - change from mercantilist to a capitalist economy; Adam Smith believed in pursuit of profit and general prosperity; Karl Marx argued that the working class were being exploited by the capital class and called for workers to unite
Physical labor - factor labor demand increased and industrial working class emerged; paid low wages, worked long hours in poor conditions; lived in crowded and polluted cities; change from agricultural economy who had their own schedules; called for labor unions and strikes for better wages, conditions, and hours
Office labor - pre-industrial society middle class was made up of professionals and local merchants; w/ industrialization, middle-management of factories, bankes, companies, and agents were added to middle class
The wealthy - owners of industrial companies who made from investments rather than from land-owning aristocrats; capitalists made up upper class
Gender - in agricultural economy, women provided labor; in proto-industrialization, women able to earn money from manufacturing textiles; mainly supported by the labor and income from male members; women paid less than men and denied high-wage jobs
Politics - new political ideas about the individual and government; people had little to no formal voice in gove and demanded natural rights (right to vote and petition against government) based on nationalism; political movements connected to interests of middle and working classes
- Revolution of 1848 – interest in democratic governments; protests in Paris called for freedom of press; in Berlin, people wanted parliament; in Hungary, people demanded freedom from Austrian control
Voting rights - greater political participation; extension of voting rights to city dwellers, non-landowners, and the working class but only men; protests forced the government to enact reforms by the influence of middle class
Protection of workers - social reforms to protect industrial workers; labor parties advocated for minimum wages, shorter working hours, paid sick and holiday leave, better conditions, and health and unemployment insurance
- Germany - Otto Von Bismarck started workers’ accident compensation insurance, unemployment insurance, and old age pensions