Topic 5.1: The Enlightenment

• Enlightenment - emphasized reason over tradition and individualism over community values; ideals of this movement such as freedom, individualism, and self-determination challenged the roles of monarchs and church leaders; planted seeds of revolution

• Scientific Revolution and the Renaissance - humanism and while not denying the existence of God, emphasized human accomplishments and the natural world; natural laws governed social and political spheres

• The Age of Isms - socialism, and liberalism; opposing side is conservatism

• Nationalism - intense loyalty to others who share one’s language and culture, should live in an independent nation-state; led to revolutions for independence from imperial powers and constitutional representation

• Empiricism - Francis Bacon; belief knowledge comes from experience and experiments; based conclusions on observation of natural data rather than relying on reasoning from tradition or religion

• Hobbes - political life as a result of a social contract; by agreeing to a social contract, people gave up some rights to a strong central government in return for law and order

• Locke - social contract implied the right or responsibility of citizens to revolt against the unjust government; natural rights to life, liberty, and pursuit of property

  • Tabula rasa - children are born with a blank slate to be filled with knowledge; emphasis on environment and education in shaping people

• The Philosophes - a new group of thinkers and writers who explored social, political, and economic theories

• Baron Montesquieu - writers of the new constitution in France and America; praised British use of checks and balances with Parliament; influenced the American system by separating its executive branch from its legislative and third branch

• Voltaire - advocacy of civil liberties, religious liberty, and judicial reform in France

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau - expanded on the idea of social contract; General Will of people, believed society could improve

• Adam Smith - called mercantilism freer trade; supported some government regulations, benefits of taxes, and advocated for laissez-faire; governments should reduce intervention in the economy and believed businesses and consumers should make choices in their own interests to guide a market beneficial for society; provided foundation for capitalism where production are privately owned and operated for profit

• Deism - the belief that a divinity simply set natural laws in motion and does not interfere

• Thomas Paine - defense of Deism; wrote Common Sense for advocating liberty from Britain and anti-church writings

• Conservatism - belief in traditional institutions and favored reliance on practical experience over ideological theories; blamed the poor themselves for poverty

• Utopian socialism - a system of public or direct worker ownership of the means of production

  • Henri de Saint-Simon - work that produces things useful to society, public works

  • Charles Fourier - work should be enjoyable and less tiring

  • Robert Owen - established intentional communities w/ utopian socialism

• Classical liberalism - belief in natural rights, constitutional government, laissez-faire economics, reduced spending on armies and established churches

• Feminism - women’s rights and quality

  • Olympe de Gouges - during the French Revolution; “Declaration of the Rights of Women and of the (Female) Citizen”

  • Mary Wollstonecraft - “Vindication of the Rights of Women”; females should get same education as males; universal education would let women participate in society to support themselves rather than relying on men; same rights as men

  • Seneca Falls - activists gathered to promote women’s rights and suffrage; demanded women deserved right to vote, hold office, hold property and manage incomes, and be legal guardians to their children; “all men and women are created equal”

• Abolitionism - provide rights and equality with freedom of slaves and end of serfdom and Atlantic slave trade; slave trade stopped → slavery declined

• End of serfdom - declining as economy changed from agrarian to industrial and peasant revolts pushed leaders to reform

• Zionism - desire of Jews to reestablish independent homeland; battling anti-semitism —> needed to control their own land; Dreyfus Affair where Jewish military officer was convicted of treason against the French government by was based on forged documents by people promitung anti-semitism; land desired was controlled by the Ottoman Empire and Palestinian Arabs who were Muslim

Topic 5.2: Nationalism and Revolutions

• American Revolutions - inspired by Enlightenment philosophy and physiocrats, providing defense of free market ideas opposing mercantilism; American colonists were independent politically, separated from the king and Parliament

  • Declaration of Independence - expressed philosophy behind colonist fight against British rule; unalienable rights from John Locke including right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness

• New Zealand Wars - New Zealand occupied by Polynesian people; colonization by British and control over Maori affairs; wars between Maori and the British, British victory

• French Revolution - “liberty, equality, fraternity”; after French aid to the American revolution they held a meeting of Estates-General for economic problems but had inequality in voting, caused the commoners to form the National Assembly; wanted to establish a constitutional monarchy; stormed the Bastille that symbolized abuses of the monarchy and corrupt aristocracy; king forced to accept a new government with a National Assembly in charge

  • Declaration of the Rights of Man - declared basic human rights; abolition of feudalism

  • Louis XVI refused to accept limited monarchy and dissatisfied radical groups, inspired the First French Republic

  • Reign of Terror - government executed opponents of the revolution

• Haitian Revolution - Haiti was a French sugar and coffee colony; slaves revolted against white masters, joined by Maroons (escaped slaves), established an independent government w/ constitution that granted equality and citizenship to residents inspired by Toussaint L'Ouverture; land reform where plantations and land were being distributed among enslaved and free black people; first country in Latin America to win its independence and the first black-led country in the Western Hemisphere from slave uprising

  • Haitian and French revolutions - inspired by Enlightenment w/ insistence that men had natural rights; Haitians had more severe restraints w/ slaves that had no rights at all

• Creole Revolutions in Latin America - born of European ancestry, considered superior to mestizos, and desired independence from Spain; creoles opposed Spain’s mercantilism, wanted more political power after power went to peninsulares, and mestizos wanted political power and wealth

• Bolivar Revolutions - creoles wanted independence from Spain but refused support of mestizos, indigenous people, and mulattos; constitutions of newly independent countries legally ended social distinctions and slavery, but remained conservative

  • Simon Bolivar - pushed for Enlightenment ideals in Latin America

  • Manuela Saenz - actively participated with Simon Bolivar and rose to rank of colonel

• Challenges to Spanish colonialism - Puerto Rico and Cuba saw uprisings against Spanish rule influenced by Lola Rodriguez de Tio

• Propaganda movement - education was limited and controlled by religious authorities in the Philippines; embraced Enlightenment thinking, advocated greater autonomy for the Philippines

• Italian unification - Count di Cavour drove to unite the entire Italian peninsula under the House of Savoy; used to be divided among kingdoms and city-states; believed in natural rights, progress, and constitutional monarchy

  • Realpolitik - politics of reality; advanced Italy unity with manipulation; made Napoleon III fight Austria to weaken Austrian influence

  • Giuseppe Mazzini - Cavour adopted radical romantic revolutionary philosophy of Mazzini who agitated for Italian resurgence

  • Red Shirts Military - led by Giuseppe Garibaldi who were fighting south in the Kingdom of Naples

• German unification - nationalist movements opposed French occupation of German states; Prussian leader Otto von Bismarck favored realpolitik and used nationalism to engineer 3 wars for unification → Austria with Prussia against Denmark and then against Prussia, manipulated France against Prussia → Prussia gained territory and German Empire was founded

• Global consequences - Italy and Germany were on international stage for competing alliances and extreme nationalism; poverty in Italy encouraged immigration to the United States and Argentina

• Balkan nationalism - Ottoman empire was dominant until it declined and with increasing contact with the Western European ideals, Balkan nationalism developed; Greece had exposure to Enlightenment principles and reawakened Greek cultural pride and nationalism → Greek independence from Ottomans; waning of Ottoman control led to freedom and influx of new ideas

• Ottoman nationalism - aimed to create a modern and unified state by minimizing ethnic, linguistic, and religious differences; actually intensified people’s feelings of difference and promoted desire of independence

Topic 5.3: Industrial Revolution Begins

• Industrialization - increased mechanization of production and social changes

• Agricultural revolution - increased productivity; crop rotation and seed drill increased food production; introduction of potatoes; populations grew because there was more food, people lived longer and were able to work in factories to provide market for manufactured goods

• Preindustrial societies - lived in rural areas, grew their food, made their own clothes; commercial revolution and maritime empires introduced Indian cotton; investors in Britain began to build their own cotton cloth industry → cottage industry; home spinning gave women weavers some independence but was slow; investors demanded faster production

• Growth of technology - spinning jenny and water frame reduced time needed to weave cloth, was more efficient than a single person’s labor → doomed household textile cottage industry and production was moved to factories; interchangeable parts by Eli Whitney so if specific components broke, it could be replaced with an identical part → division and specialization of labor bc factory owners didn’t have to rely on skilled laborers, developed assembly line

• British industrial advantages - located on Atlantic Ocean with seaways that imported raw materials and exported goods; mineral resources such as coal as energy source; resources from colonies and wealth from the trans-Atlantic slave trade, had excess capital; rivers for canals and harbors, tansport of raw materials and products; strong fleets for defense and trade; legal protection of private property; growing population and urbanization, became industrial workforce after enclosure movement limited land for farmers

Topic 5.4: Industrialization Spreads

• France and Germany - after the French revolution, sparsely populated urban centers and delayed industrial revolution; Germany was fragmented into small states and delayed industrialization but became a producer of steel and coal

• The United States - leading industrial force; human capital (workforce) was key; political upheaval and poverty brought immigrants to the USA from Europe and East Asia, provided labor force for factories

• Russia - focused on railroads and exports; Trans-Siberian Railroad connected commercial and industrial areas, made trade easy; coal, iron, and steel developed

• Japan - first Asian country to industrialize; defensive modernization and adapted technology by Europeans to protect traditional culture

• Shipbuilding in India and Southeast Asia - resurgence in India due to political alliances with western countries suffered with British mismanagement of resources and ineffective leadership

• Iron works in India - company rule where British East India Company controlled parts of India; tariffs led to decline of India’s ability to mine metals; Arms Act restricted access to minerals and production of firearms; lack of technological innovation and led to labor-intensive method of mining

• Textile production in India and Egypt - first to produce and trade textiles and flourished; Lancaster textile mills in Britain forced British government in India to impose a equalizing tax to undermine profitability; Egypt lost export and domestic markets

Topic 5.5: Technology in the Industrial Age

• The Coal Revolution - new machinery benefitted from a new power source; the steam engine provided an inexpensive way to harness coal power to create steam which generated energy for machinery in textile factories; coal made energy production mobile and dependable

• Water transportation - steamships revolutionized sailing; coal-powered steam engines could be used on ships and trains; no longer dependent on winds for power and replaced sailing ships; coaling stations on critical points on trade routes

• Iron - mass production of iron; coal improved processes that helped iron producers increase output

• Second industrial revolution - The U.S., Great Britain, and Germany; steel, chemicals, machinery, and electronics

  • Steel - mass production of steel w/ introduction of the Bessemer Process

  • Oil - commercial oil wells for a new energy resource; petroleum was a new source from plant/animal remains; kerosene for lighting and heaters; precision machinery and internal combustion engine → automobile and airplane technologies

  • Electricity - development of effective electrical generator

  • Communications - development of electricity + electronics → communication technology; telephone by Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Edison; radio developed by Gugliemo Marconi, was able to receive signals across the Atlantic Ocean and became popular mass media

• Railroads, steamships, and the telegraph made exploration, development, and communication possible

• Transcontinental Railroad - connected Atlantic and Pacific oceans facilitated U.S. industrial growth; natural resources such as coal, iron, and oil, were transported efficiently

Topic 5.6: Industrialization: Government’s Role

• Western domination and tech. → countries experienced difficulty keeping traditional values w/ modernization

• Ottoman Empire - “sick man of Europe”; had not adopted Western technology or Enlightenment ideals; corruption led to decline and ethnic nationalism and diverse population led to unrest; Europeans saw opportunity to expand their own empires

• China - Opium War and split into “spheres of influence” by Europeans; China shook off foreign domination and became a republic; central government too weak to promote industrialization

• Japan - central government grew stronger when maintaining independence and territorial integrity against Western challenges; sought Western innovations to make it equal

• Ottoman industrialization - overexpansion and failure to modernize → coups, declining trade, weakening leadership

  • Muhammad Ali - selected as new governor of Egypt where the sultan lacked power after Mamluk rule; Ali was able to act independently from sultan; began making country’s military based on European model, established schools, sent military officers for education in France, and started an official newspaper; taxed peasants at high rates so government could control cotton production; securularized religious lands put agricultural produce in the hands of the government for large profits; pushed for industrialization and textile production

• Japan - very little contact with the rest of the world, but imperial powers were not content; Britain, Netherlands, and Russia wanted to sell goods in Japan; Matthew Perry sailed to Japan for trade privileges for the U.S. and eventually gave in to demands, same for other foreign states; overthrew the shogun and restored power to the emperor in the Meiji Restoration

  • Adopted reforms - abolished feudalism with Charter Oath, established constitutional monarchy, established equality before the law, reorganized military, new school systems, railroads and roads, subsidized industrialization; financed with high agricultural tax, revenue for the bureaucracy; replicated industrial society’s problems such as abuse and exploitation of female workers

  • Private investments - from overseas; sold to zaibatsu, powerful Japanese family business organizations; encouraged innovation

Topic 5.7: Economic Developments and Innovations

• Effects on business organizations - corporations formed to minimize risk, chartered by a government as a legal entity owned by stockholders and receive sums of money

  • Monopoly - control of specific business and elimination of all competition; German steel industry; U.S. oil industry

  • Bessemer process - efficient way to produce steel

• Companies across boundaries - Cecil Rhodes was an investor in a railroad project in South Africa that connected all British-held colonies used for extracting resources and paid lower wages to African natives; Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, a British-owned bank opened in Hong Kong to focus of finance, investments, ang global banking; Unilever Corporation, British and Dutch, focused on household goods

• Consumerism - developed among working and middle class of society and standards of living rose; producers began to advertise heavily to members with disposable income; leisure activities rose because of bleak industrial environments; athleticism was encouraged and sports developed along class lines such as tennis and golf in England for upper classes while rugby was played by lower classes; construction of music halls and arks for the mingling of classes and for lower classes to emulate civilized behavior

Topic 5.8: Reactions to the Industrial Economy

• Harsh conditions provoked reforms - “Mother Jones” - described severe deprivation of coal miners; addresses inhumanity of industrial era and social reforms

• Labor unions - organizations of workers that advocated for the right to bargain with employers and result in agreements; response to dangerous work conditions, low wages, and long hours; Great Britain unions organized in secret bc they were seen as enemies of trade until they became acceptable; improved worker’s lives by winning minimum wage laws, limits on hours worked, overtime pay, and five-day work week

• Voting rights - sparked movement for empowerment of working class; reform bills to expand pool of men who could vote for more representation; reduced property ownership qualifications and laid foundation for expansion of the right to vote

• Child labor - declared children under the age of 10 were banned from working in coal mines; education became mandatory; focus on education opposed to work redefined role of children in urban society

• John Stuart Mill - criticized laissez-faire capitalism as inhumane to workers; legal reforms to allow labor unions, limit child labor, and ensure safe work conditions

  • Utilitarianism - sought the greater good for the greatest number of people rather than timeless moral rules

• Karl Marx - German scholar who argued for scientific socialism; Friedrich Engles wealthy supporter; published the Communist Manifesto that summarized critique of capitalism that it was an advance on feudalism because it produced wealth but also needless poverty; contradiction between wealth and poverty occurred because capitalism divided society into the proletariat, the working class, and the bourgeoisie, the middle class and investors (exploitation of the proletariat); bourgeoisie owned means of production; socialism should replace capitalism and class distinctions would end

• Ottoman empire - sultan Mahmud II reformed Ottoman empire; abolished Janissaries and developed new artillery unit by Europeans, abolition of feudal system; builded roads and postal service; reorganization (tanzimat) to root out corruption, secular system of schools, new laws and commercial codes; Hatt-i Humayun updated legal system regulated by millets, separate legal courts; workers paid by cash rather than goods and financial enterprises increased

• China - pressure to modernize; Self-Strengthening Movement, development of government to face internal and external problems, hope to strengthen China against foreign powers; stable government collecting revenue to allow China to repay debts and participate in trade; set up diplomatic corps and a customs service to collect taxes; defeat in the Sino-Japanese War called for change

  • Emperor Guangxu - civil servant convinced ruler to support reforms in Hundred Days of Reform including abolition of civil service exam, corruption, and establishment of Western industrial, commercial, and medical systems

  • Empress Dowager Cixi - conservative; opposed reforms and wanted to protect traditional social and government systems; imprisoned the emperor and repealed his reforms; feared influence of foreigners and resisted new technology

  • Civil service - wealthy were using civil service for favors; revenue dropped as a result of bribes; non-qualified persons purchased civil service posts; abandoned after 2,500 years

  • Foreign powers - Europeans had little gain and encouraged change but were met by conservatism and the 1900 Boxer Rebellion; weakened by internal rebellion and had to accept territorial protection from Western powers who demanded trade concessions; chose to become a republic; attempts to preserve territorial integrity benefited from the U.S. who maintained stability in Asia by preventing Japan from encroaching farther on its territory after the Russo-Japanese War exemplified by the Treaty of Portsmouth by Roosevelt

• Japan - ended traditional system of authority; gave samurai final payment and legally dissolved their position; the bushido, code of conduct, was no longer condoned by the government; samurai served the government as genros, elder statesmen, while others resisted; new schools improved literacy rates, economy industrialized, country began to develop democracy with free press, labor unions, and respect for individual rights; army officers began to dominate

Topic 5.9: Society and the Industrial Age

• Effects on urban areas - grew rapidly and left damaging ecological footprint created by inhumane living conditions for poorest residents; crowded into tenement apartment buildings in urban slums (low income family areas); disease, fire, and crime spread; municipalities created public health acts to implement sanitation and safety reforms; eventually led to increased living standards; middle class had increased access to goods, housing, culture, and education

• Effects on class structures - bottom of social hierarchy were laborers in factories and coal mines, the working class viewed as replaceable and kept wages low; middle class emerged of factory and office managers, small business owners, and professionals and were white-collar workers; top of hierarchy were industrialists and owners of large corporations

• Farm work vs factory work - family worked in close proximity when women worked in their own homes and landless workers farmed the fields of a landlord; industrial machinery made individuals leave their families and homes for long workdays; shrills in factories told workers when they could take a break which was a culture shock to former farmers who worked on their own schedules

• Effects on children - low wages forced children to work; children could climb into equipment to make repairs or into tight spots in mines; labored in heat, carried heavy loads of coal, damage to lungs, mine collapses and flood threats

• Effects on women - working-class women worked in coal mines and were primary laborers in textile factories, preferred because they were paid less; middle-class women had more limited lives and would stay home to become a housewife, idealized the female homemaker and domestic roles; spurred feminisms

• Effects on environment - powered by fossil fuels; toxic air pollutants from coal-burning factories and deadly respiratory problems; water pollution; disease spread

• Mass production - made goods cheaper, more abundant, and accessible; rural areas to cities where both low-skilled and high-skilled workers took advantage of new opportunities

Topic 5.10: Continuity and Change in the Industrial Age

• Transformed production and consumption - in Western Europe, access to natural resources, trans-oceanic trade routes, and financial capital resulted in industrialization; the Scientific Revolution transferred knowledge to the West from the Islamic worked leading to inventions that would establish factories and mass production of goods; consumer goods were available, affordable, and in greater variety

• The U.S., Russia, and Japan increased industrial production and built railroads; encouraged state sponsored efforts to modernize economies; Western Europe and the U.S. dominated global economy while manufacturing declined in Middle East and Asia

• Raw materials - Latin America and Africa were sources of minerals and metals used in industrial processes; cotton from Egypt, South Asia, and Caribbean was exported to Great Britain and Europeancountries; Southeast Asia provided spices; sources of materials made possible by invention of steam ships and locomotives; trade made faster and cheaper, helped access and exploit untapped resources; movement of goods and people easy and cheaper

• Western Europe - change from mercantilist to a capitalist economy; Adam Smith believed in pursuit of profit and general prosperity; Karl Marx argued that the working class were being exploited by the capital class and called for workers to unite

• Physical labor - factor labor demand increased and industrial working class emerged; paid low wages, worked long hours in poor conditions; lived in crowded and polluted cities; change from agricultural economy who had their own schedules; called for labor unions and strikes for better wages, conditions, and hours

• Office labor - pre-industrial society middle class was made up of professionals and local merchants; w/ industrialization, middle-management of factories, bankes, companies, and agents were added to middle class

• The wealthy - owners of industrial companies who made from investments rather than from land-owning aristocrats; capitalists made up upper class

• Gender - in agricultural economy, women provided labor; in proto-industrialization, women able to earn money from manufacturing textiles; mainly supported by the labor and income from male members; women paid less than men and denied high-wage jobs

• Politics - new political ideas about the individual and government; people had little to no formal voice in gove and demanded natural rights (right to vote and petition against government) based on nationalism; political movements connected to interests of middle and working classes

  • Revolution of 1848 – interest in democratic governments; protests in Paris called for freedom of press; in Berlin, people wanted parliament; in Hungary, people demanded freedom from Austrian control

• Voting rights - greater political participation; extension of voting rights to city dwellers, non-landowners, and the working class but only men; protests forced the government to enact reforms by the influence of middle class

• Protection of workers - social reforms to protect industrial workers; labor parties advocated for minimum wages, shorter working hours, paid sick and holiday leave, better conditions, and health and unemployment insurance

  • Germany - Otto Von Bismarck started workers’ accident compensation insurance, unemployment insurance, and old age pensions