Psychology Unit 1: AOS1

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Cognitive Development & Example

Cognitive Development & Example

The changes in thought processes that occur as we age. Produces more sophisticated thinking  and the ability to comprehend.

Learning a second language, learning times tables

Emotional Development & Example

• Emotional: The changes in skills that allow individuals to control, express, and recognise emotions appropriately.

  • Examples: Recognising you are upset, understanding how others feel, etc.

SOcial Development and Example

• Social: Changes in skills that allow individuals to effectively and appropriately interact with others.

  • Examples: Learning to have conversations, how to appropriately communicate with certain people.

Hereditary vs Environmental Factors (Nature vs Nurture) & Example

• Hereditary factors: Influence development and are genetically passed down from biological parents to their offspring.

  • Heritable traits include: hair colour, eye colour, body type and build, etc.

• Environmental factors: Influence development and arise from an individual’s physical and social surroundings.

  • Environmental traits include: education, religion, job, social groups etc.

Biopsychosocial model

The interdisciplinary framework of human development. It understands the experience in terms of many factors. Those factors are specifically biological, psychological, and social.

• Biological Factors: Internal genetic and/or physiologically based factors.

  • For example: sleep, hormones, nutrition, diseases, etc.

• Psychological Factors: An individual’s mental processes, including cognition, thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes.

  • For example: emotions, personality, memories, self-esteem, etc.

• Social Factors: Interactions with others and their environment and community groups.

  • For example: cultural norms, education, socioeconomic status, etc.

Mental Wellbeing

• an individual’s current psychological state, involving their ability to think, process information, and regulate emotions.

Bowlby’s attachment theory

• Bowlby described attachment as a necessary component to ensure optimal emotional development in a child. He suggested that there were two styles of attachment, both leading to different outcomes in emotional development:

  • Secure attachment: the needs of the infant being consistently met by caregiver, their presence calming them in distress.

  • Insecure attachment: needs are inconsistently met or ignored. Infants will not feel comforted by their caregiver, sometimes rather distressed.

Bartholomew and Horowitz Attachment theory

• These two proposed a model centred around 2 main factors. Those being anxiety and avoidance. Stemming from these were 4 attachment styles that each adult fits into. These are

Ainsworth Attachment Theory

• carrying out the ‘Strange Situation’ experiment, the observation of a mother, child, and stranger in an unfamiliar room, she established three distinct styles:

  • Secure: strong, healthy, emotional bond formed due to the caregiver consistently meeting the needs of the infant.

  • Insecure-avoidant: avoids or is reluctant to receive contact due to the caregiver not responding to needs.

  • Insecure-anxious: infant fluctuates between clinging to and rejecting caregiver, inconsistent meeting of needs.

Piagets cognitive theory: sensorimotor

• Sensorimotor: children aged 0-2. The child starts to use their imagination and has goal-directed behaviour. They also begin to experience sensory and emotional situations.

Piagets cognitive theory: preoperational

Preoperational: children aged 2-7. Children are egocentric, unable to understand others perspectives. Begin to engage in symbolic play, (for example, using a banana as a phone) talking and playing with reason.

Piagets cognitive theory: concrete operational

• Concrete Operational: children aged 7-12. Children understand and engage in conversation, and are able to categorise and classify things. They begin to think logically, and develop the concept of conservation.

Piagets cognitive theory: formal operational

Formal Operational: People aged 12+, until adulthood. Begin to produce abstract thought, concepts that cannot be physically seen (like love). Logic and reasoning come into play, especially in skills of problem solving.

• Infancy: Trust vs Mistrust

• Ages 0-1 years. Infants are completely dependent on their caregivers, and if needs are met, the infant will develop trust. If needs are not met, it will lead to mistrust.

• Toddler: Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt

• Ages 1-3 years. If the caregiver encourages them to be independent, they will be, and therefore will develop a sense of autonomy. If a child relies on a caregiver, the lack of independence leads to shame and doubt.

• Preschooler: Initiative vs Guilt

• Ages 3-6 years. When the child takes initiative and is met with encouragement and respect, they will do it more often. If the child is only met with criticism or judgement after taking initiative, they will be met with guilt.

• Primary Schooler: Industry vs Inferiority

• Ages 6-12 years. The child begins to be measured on their performance in life. If the child feels inadequate due to their performance, they develop a sense of inferiority.

• Adolescent: Identity vs Role Confusion

• Ages 12-19 years. The person attempts to navigate and seek clarity in who they are and their capabilities. A sense of identity is developed if these points become clear, and values are attained. Role confusion can lead to a weak sense of self and uncertainty regarding identity.

• Young Adult: Intimacy vs Isolation

• Ages 19-30 years. The person navigates and establishes social relationships, specifically romantic ones. It is to seek intimacy in a romantic relationship, or rather isolate themselves.

• Middle Age: Generativity vs Stagnation

• Ages 30-65 years. The person aims to assess where they want their life to go, finding their purpose in life. Whether they’ve contributed to the lives of the next generation or are stuck, stagnated.

• Older Adult: Integrity vs Despair

• Ages 65+ years. The person assesses their satisfaction with their life and its meaning. The satisfaction with their life and achievements is marked as integrity, and despair is looking back on their lives with regrets and lack of pride.

Critical Periods & Example

• Skills or functions within a set period must be learned during this predetermined period

• Period starts and finish suddenly

• E.g. Critical period between 3-5 in which children need to learn their native first language in order to learn it at all

Sensitive Period & Example

• Particular skills and functions will be easiest to learn during this developmental period, have ability to develop at a later time

• Start and finish more gradually than Critical Periods

• E.g. a second language involves a sensitive period and is easier to learn as a child. Can still be learned as an adult, but slower and require more effort

Typical Behaviour & Example

Activity is consistent with how an individual usually behaves

• E.g. Extrovert being talkative

Atypical Behaviour & Example

• Activity that is unusual or unnatural according to how an individual usually behaves

  • E.g. Extrovert suddenly quiet and more reserve

Cultural Perspectives:

• Different customs and beliefs & traditions

• Different rules and etiquette

• Attitudes towards importance of mental health

  • E.g. eye contact in Asian, Hispanic, Middle Eastern Culture = disrespectful, whereas eye contact in Western Culture = paying attention

Social Norms

• Society’s unofficial rules and expectations on how individuals should act

• Exist on a larger and more generalised scale

  • E.g. be kind to the elderly, open doors or give up public transport

Statistical Rarity

• Something that lies outside of the range of statistical normality and is also unusual enough to be considered significant

• If a large % people exhibit the behaviour, considered typical

• If a small % of people exhibit the behaviour, considered statistical rarity

  • E.g. 100 people in a building, only 1 person smokes = statistically rare

Personal Distress

• Aversive and often self-oriented emotional reaction

• Does not have to be grand or noticeable, but just inconsistent with how the individual behaves

  • E.g. you and a friend fight, you start crying every time you think about friend = may be considered atypical, not talking to your friend causes distress = you act differently

Normality

thoughts and feelings that are common or considered acceptable

Abnormality

deviating from the norm that is considered undesirable

Sociocultural Approach

• People perceive things as normal according to set of codes relating to social and cultural contexts they are apart of.

Functional Approach

• People considered normal if thoughts, feelings and behaviours allow them to cope with demands of everyday life

  • Eating, sleeping, maintain friendships, hold a job, control emotions

• Considered abnormal if cannot do above

Historical Approach

• What people perceive as normal changes throughout different historical periods, eg homosexuality

Medical Approach

• Things that are abnormal have underlying biological causes and can be diagnosed clearly according to different symptoms

Statistical Approach

• Based on how majority of people think, feel and behave

• Normality is how most people behave, abnormality is few people

Situational Approach

• Normality is based on what is acceptable in different contexts

Adaptive vs Maladaptive: Emotions

Adaptive: Being able to effectively regulate and display emotions. Being able to calm down by using coping strategies

Maladaptive: Being unable to effectively regulate and display emotions. Staying mad >:(

Adaptive vs Maladaptive: Behaviours

Adaptive: Activities that enhance an individual’s ability to match the changing demands of everyday life. Going for a social drink with mates after work (legal age ofc)

Maladaptive: Activities that hinder one’s ability to match changing demands of everyday life. Drinking so much that you are hungover and cannot work

Adaptive vs Maladaptive: Cognitions

Adaptive: Having awareness and knowledge that enables you to adjust to different environments and situations.

• Evaluating a failed test as an opportunity to learn

Maladaptive: Lacking awareness and knowledge that enables you to adjust to different environments and situations.

• Thinking you won’t get a job after failing a maths test

Neurotypicality

Individual who displays neurological and cognitive function that is considered typical.

Neurodiversity

Variations in technological development and functioning, eg autism, ADHD, dyslexia.

Social Workers

• Support people in making changes in their lives to improve social and personal wellbeing

• Identifying issues that require change and connecting people to appropriate sources of support (Secure housing, therapy)

Youth Workers

• Support young people in developing skills they need to make positive changes in their lives

Occupational Therapists

• Promote wellbeing by enabling people to participate fully in the responsibilities of everyday life

• E.g. develop strategies for someone with ADHD to stay focused during the workday, identify ways to minimise distractions

Psychologists

• Work to understand and assist clients in managing thoughts, emotions, and behaviours

• Professionally trained in one or more branches of psychology (educational, organisational, clinical, etc.)

• Carry out different roles based on field of specialisation (e.g. educational psychologist assist students)

Psychiatrists

• Doctor who specialises in diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and study of mental, behavioural, and personality disorders

• Also provide support for mental wellbeing and psychological development

• Have a medical role, more difficult role to obtain

• Difference from Psychologist: Psychiatrist is a medical doctor, who has completed special training, can prescribe medication

• Need referral to see Psychiatrist (obtain from GP or psychologist)