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Schools of sociology
Marx & Dubois: conflict theory
Weber: social interactionism
Durkhéim: functionalism
Conflict Theory
views society as a competition for limited resources, groups struggle for power and inequality is maintained by those in control.
Marx - bourgeoisie vs proletariat
ex: class struggles (rich vs poor)
functionalism
looking at society as a machine with lots of different parts that all have an important role to play to promote stability and harmony, each part serves a specific function contributing to the overall balance and order.
social interactionism
focuses on how people create meanings through social interactions. we give meanings to symbols such as words, gestures, objects.
ex: shaking hands = greeting, making a deal, respect
feminist theory
examines gender inequality and advocates for women’s rights & social change. power structures still maintain inequality, social roles and expectations still based on gender & intersectionality (race, class, + can effect gender experiences
Karl Marx
German theorist and socialist revolutionary, considered one of the founding fathers of sociology (1818-1883)
« the communist manifesto 1848 »
« the capital 1867-1894 »
Hithero existing society: history of all class struggles
Max Weber
German sociologist (1864-1920)
« Protestant Ethic and the spirit of capitalism 1904 »
« exonomy and society 1921 »
Emile Durkheim
french sociologist considered one of the founding fathers of sociology
“the rules of sociological method - 1895”
“the division of labour in society - 1893”
“suicide - 1897”
Scope of sociology
what it is: the study of human society, social behaviour and relationships within social structures
what’s its focus:
social institutions (family, religion, education)
social relationships (groups, work, culture)
social change (tech, politics)
inequality (class, race, gender)
culture & norms (beliefs, values, customs)
crime (laws, morality, social responses)
population & demographics (migration, urbanization)
Goal: to understand how society shapes individuals and how individuals shape society
positivism
revealing true nature of society, specific way in producing science & relying on evidence
Auguste Comte: formulâted doctrine of positivism, thought studying society relied on scientific evidence (experiments, stats,) Authentic knowledge is derived from sensory experience (touch, taste, smell, see, hear)
social science
first lesson is that sociological imagination can only be obtained by locating oneself in their period and becoming aware of those who share the same circumstances. Helps understand society in a broader social context
the promise: sociological imagination
enables its possessor to understand the larger historical scene in terms in terms of its meaning for their life
the intersection of history & biography, the relation between the two and society. thats it’s task & promise (wright): the sociological imagination can help improve our lives and happiness
agency & structure relation
Relation: structure can’t exist without agency, even though structured are bigger than individuals and loom above them, structures wouldn’t exist without the agency of those who build them, support them; and work for them
our choices. individuals with freedom & autonomy, our actions and interactions, ways of living, hobbies, interests, etc.
things existing behind a person. sustaining, stable, durable. social institutions (family, religion, education, etc) and organizations (schools, churches, corporations)
3 questions
place in history : toward a theory of history
individual subject : toward a theory of man and society
social structure : toward empirical studies of contemporary social facts & problems
Types of sociology
macro: large-scale social structures and systems. focuses on institutions, social classes. ex: capitalism effecting gender
micro: small-scale interactions and individual behaviours. focuses on social roles, communication, everyday life. ex: friendships within school
meso: connects micro and macro by studying organizations and communities. focuses on: social movements, work places. ex: company culture influencing employee behaviours
two forms of social solidarity
theory of change & how they relate
mechanical: in this society, personal rights are not distinguished from real rights. acting together only if they have no act of their own. Ties individual directly to society without any intermediary
organic: Community members work together with their differences (helps them thrive). People depend on others & society - Due to the division of labour
3 types of consciousness
class: awareness of one’s social class and its struggles. ex: striking companies for wage increases and respect
false: individuals or groups accept a worldview that goes against their best interests. ex: low wage worker believing wage increase will harm the economy
collective: shared beliefs and values that unite a society. Durkheim. ex: religious traditions
what is crime?
going against societal beliefs
a committed act that endangers or challenges the peace that society is trying to maintain
historical materialism & dialectical
method of procuring means of life necessary for human existence. material world drives social process (houses, fuel)
method trying to explain economic revolution as a function of society & the interaction between capital & labour (capitalism > socialism)
theory of change & class control
Explains how societies transform over time, often through conflict and power struggles
Marxist perspective- bourgeoisie controls resources, production and social norms. Proletariat is exploited for labour but can drive change through resistance (revolutions and labour movements) ex: industrial revolutions shifted power dynamics between ruling and working class
social classes & 2 types
The dynamic of the system caused the division of society into two antagonistic groups
Bourgeoisie (Businessman): owners of mean of production
Proletarians: owners of labour power
what is capital? what is capitalism?
money whose sole and hegemonic use is to increase itself
the historical social system organized around the production of capital (commodity production, production depends mainly on wage labour, private ownership of means of production, the market is the primary vehicle for exchange, driven by the goal of profit accumulation)
Mode of production
social relations of production: sum total of social relationships that people must enter to survive, to produce & to reproduce their ways of life.
productive forces: reflect the actual capability of men in the process of creating wealth for society + ensures human development (ex: factories, tech, tools, machines, science)
surplus & labour theory of value
Surplus value: extra value workers produce beyond what they are payed (worker makes 500$ in goods, only gets 100$ and employer keeps the surplus.
Labour theory of value: Marx- value is created by human labour, not just materials or machinery. Explains capitalist exploitation, workers produce wealth but only receive a fraction of it
Extra - Law of value: the value of commodity is determined by the amount of labour required to produce it
commodities and production
producing things in which is meant for others, not for yourself. based on wage labour force & is provided by workers. market is the main tool in exchange
wage labour & means of production
Workers sell their labour for wages instead of owning what they produce. Ex: factory workers don’t own the goods they make, only their paycheque
Tools, factories, land, and capital used to produce goods. Controlled by; capitalist who own and profit from production but also workers who have no ownership, only wages.
5 types of capitalism
1. Laissez-Faire Capitalism – Minimal government intervention, free markets dominate.
2. State Capitalism – Government plays a strong role in the economy (e.g., China, Singapore).
3. Welfare Capitalism – Free market with social policies (e.g., healthcare, pensions).
4. Crony Capitalism – Corrupt ties between business and government for mutual benefit.
5. Corporate Capitalism – Large corporations dominate the economy and influence politics.
exploitation vs oppression
• Exploitation: When one group benefits from the labor of another without fair compensation.
• Example: Low-wage workers producing high-profit goods for corporations.
• Oppression: Systematic mistreatment or discrimination against a group based on identity (e.g., gender, race, class).
• Example: Women facing wage gaps or racial minorities experiencing systemic barriers.
• Key Difference: Exploitation is economic (class-based), while oppression is broader (social, political, cultural).
speed of capitalism
• Marx: Capitalism constantly expands, seeking profit and efficiency.
• Leads to rapid industrialization and technological change.
• Modern Effects of Capitalism’s Speed:
• Fast consumerism: New products and trends emerge quickly.
• Gig economy: Short-term jobs replace traditional employment.
• Environmental concerns: Overproduction leads to resource depletion.
• Example: The shift from industrial capitalism to digital capitalism (e.g., tech startups, automation).
protestent ethic
• Definition: A belief system emphasizing hard work, discipline, and frugality as signs of moral virtue.
• Max Weber’s Theory: The Protestant Ethic contributed to capitalism by promoting work as a duty to God.
• Key Religious Influence: Calvinism (belief in predestination led to working hard to prove salvation).
• Example: Early capitalists reinvested profits instead of spending them lavishly, fueling economic growth.
what is surplus
• Marxist - Definition: The extra value created by labor that is not returned to the worker but kept by the owners.
• Types of Surplus:
• Economic Surplus: Profits in capitalist societies.
• Surplus Labor: Extra work done beyond what’s necessary for wages.
• Example: A worker produces goods worth $500 daily but only earns $100—$400 is surplus value taken by the employer.
religious changes
priests, donations, churches > individuals responsible for entering heaven. capitalism accelerated the idea that labour was needed to serve god
4 principle forms:
Calvinism: you are alone to make your own actions, inner loneliness means you are responsible for your destiny. Strict discipline, influenced capitalist work ethics
Pietism: emphasized personal faith, devotion and morality over church rituals
Methodism: focused on social justice, moral living and community service
Baptist Sects: advocated for individual interpretation of the bible and adult baptism, often tied to social movements
power & legitimate domination (& legitimacy)
you can dominate through power & authority. power is an entity/individual anole to control or direct others
when the sub-ordinate accepts and obey, considering domination to be desirable & bearable. (not worth challenging)
subjects/participants have certain beliefs/regard to a claim as valid > exercises power & authority
rational + traditional + charismatic grounds
also known as pure legal authority. Based on logic, rights and equality. Ex: legal reforms, gender wage gap activism
also known as pure traditional authority. Rooted in historical roles and gradual change (early suffragists working within the system)
Led by influential figure inspiring social change
economic power & bureaucracy
• Economic Power: Control over resources, production, and wealth distribution, influencing social structures and class dynamics.
• Example: Corporations shaping labor policies and political decisions.
• Bureaucracy (Max Weber): A structured, rule-based system governing organizations and institutions.
• Example: Schools and governments following hierarchical procedures.
• Education: A social institution that transmits knowledge, skills, and cultural values, often reinforcing class divisions.
• Example: Unequal school funding leading to social inequality.
American construction & democracy
• American Construction: The development of U.S. society based on capitalism, individualism, and racial hierarchies.
• Example: The Constitution promoting democratic ideals while initially excluding marginalized groups.
• Democracy: A political system where power is held by the people, often through elected representatives.
• Sociological Critique: Democracy can be limited by economic and social inequalities.
• Example: Voter suppression and corporate influence in politics.
W.E.B. Du Bois
american sociologist & antiracist civil rights activist - 1868-1963
« soul of black folk 1903 »
« black reconstruction in america 1935 »
editor of « the crisis 1910-1934 »
the veil
white peoples remain blatantly unaware of Black people (do not acknowledge them) « shut out by the world by a vast veil »
• Definition: A metaphor describing the racial barrier between Black and white Americans.
• Key Ideas:
• Black individuals see the world through a “veil” of racism and exclusion.
• White people are often unaware of the Black experience.
• Example: A Black student excelling academically but still being treated as inferior due to racial biases.
double-consciousness
two identities in one body > embedded into Black people or American people, not both. « looking at one’s self through the eyes of others » « two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings »
the black worker and relation to white worker
• Black Worker: Historically exploited, underpaid, and excluded from labor rights in a racialized labor system.
• White Worker: Benefited from racial divisions, often used as a tool to maintain capitalist control.
• Key Concept (Du Bois & Marxist Thought):
• Racial divisions prevent class unity, allowing elites to maintain power.
• Example: Early labor unions excluding Black workers, reinforcing economic inequality.
system of control
• Definition: Institutional structures that maintain order and reinforce social hierarchies.
• Examples:
• Legal system: Enforces laws that often favor the elite.
• Media: Shapes public opinion and reinforces dominant ideologies.
• Education: Socializes individuals to accept societal norms.
• Example: slavery
Silvia Federici
Italian-American scholar, activist, and Marxist feminist best known for her work on capitalism, gender, and social reproduction. She argues that women’s unpaid domestic labor—such as housework and childcare—is essential to capitalism but remains undervalued and unrecognized.
working class creation
Definition: The historical process of forming the working class, often through industrialization, urbanization, and economic shifts that force people into wage labor.
Key Points:
• Enclosure movement displaced peasants → forced into wage labor
• Industrial capitalism expanded → increased proletariat
• Shaped by exploitation & class struggle
alienation by means of production
Definition: A Marxist concept where workers are alienated from their labor, products, and each other because they do not control the means of production.
Key Points:
• Workers produce goods but do not own them
• Separated from the creative process of labor
• Leads to lack of fulfillment and worker dissatisfaction
social relations
Definition: The interactions and connections between individuals and groups in a society, shaped by economic, political, and cultural structures.
Key Points:
• Includes class, race, gender, and power dynamics
• Influenced by capitalism and social hierarchies
• Determines how people engage with institutions
dispossession of women’s bodies
Definition: The ways in which women’s bodies are controlled, commodified, and stripped of autonomy by patriarchal and capitalist structures.
Key Points:
• Silvia Federici: Ties women’s oppression to capitalism (e.g., witch hunts, unpaid domestic labor)
• Catharine MacKinnon: Focuses on legal & structural control of women’s sexuality and bodies
• Reproductive labor & sexual exploitation as tools of oppression
control v divide
Definition: A strategy used by those in power to maintain dominance by either controlling a group or dividing them to prevent collective action.
Key Points:
• Control: Direct suppression or regulation (e.g., laws, policing)
• Divide: Encouraging internal conflicts (e.g., racial or gender divisions in labor)
• Used to weaken class consciousness and maintain hierarchy
evaluation of women’s labour
Definition: The recognition (or lack thereof) of women’s contributions to economic and social life, particularly in unpaid and undervalued work.
Key Points:
• Domestic labor is often invisible/unpaid
• Wage gap & job segregation devalue women’s paid work
• Feminist critiques push for recognition and fair compensation
Mckinnon
Definition: Catharine MacKinnon, a feminist legal scholar known for her work on sexual harassment, gender inequality, and the legal system’s role in maintaining patriarchy.
Key Points:
• Sexual harassment = a form of sex discrimination
• Critiques liberal feminism for ignoring structural power
• Advocates for radical feminist legal reforms
feminism: liberal, marxist & radical
Feminism Type | Focus | Key Ideas |
Liberal Feminism | Legal & policy reforms | Equal rights, workplace & education opportunities |
Marxist Feminism | Capitalism & class struggle | Women’s oppression tied to economic structures & unpaid labor |
Radical Feminism | Patriarchy & structural power | Male dominance as root oppression; focus on sexual violence & reproductive control |
alternatives to capitalism
Definition : Economic and social systems that challenge capitalism by prioritizing collective ownership, equality, and social welfare.
Key Points:
• Socialism: Public or worker control of production, redistribution of wealth
• Communism: Classless society with common ownership
• Cooperatives: Worker-owned businesses
• Anarchism: Decentralized, stateless systems
relation between marxist and radical feminism
Definition: Both perspectives analyze women’s oppression but focus on different root causes.
• Overlap: Both critique capitalist patriarchy but differ in primary focus
Key Points:
Feminism Type | Focus | View on Women’s Oppression |
Marxist Feminism | Class struggle & capitalism | Women’s oppression comes from economic structures & unpaid labor |
Radical Feminism | Patriarchy & male dominance | Male control of women (sexuality, reproduction, violence) is central |
focus on sexuality
Definition: Examines how sexuality is socially constructed, regulated, and linked to power.
Key Points:
• Feminists critique heterosexual norms as reinforcing male dominance
• Sexuality is shaped by cultural, legal, and economic systems
• LGBTQ+ perspectives challenge traditional binaries & norms
Rape & consent (lack of agency to consent)
Definition: The lack of full autonomy in sexual encounters due to power imbalances, coercion, or social structures.
Key Points:
• MacKinnon: Rape is tied to systemic gender inequality
• Consent: Legal & social definitions often fail to address coercion
• Agency: Structural forces (e.g., gender roles, economic dependency) limit true choice
male dominance through sexuality
Definition: How control over sexuality reinforces male power in society.
Key Points:
• Sexual violence & harassment as tools of oppression
• Objectification & commodification of women’s bodies
• Reproductive rights & control over women’s choices
methods & state
Definition: The role of the state in maintaining or challenging social structures, and the methods used in sociological research.
Methods (Sociological Research)
• Quantitative: Surveys, statistics (macro-level trends)
• Qualitative: Interviews, ethnography (experiences & meanings)
• Critical approaches: Feminist & Marxist methodologies focus on power & oppression
State (Government & Power)
• Maintains capitalist & patriarchal systems
• Enforces laws that regulate gender, labor, and sexuality
• Can be a tool for both oppression and change
Michel Foucault
French Sociologist
« Discipline & Punish: Birth of the Prison 1975 »
«Society must be defended 1976 »
Lecture at the College of France 1970-1984
punishment, violence, & discipline
It is a study of the mechanism and cultural change behind the transformation of the penal system. The use of new technological powers in various institutions like prisons, schools, hospitals, and military barracks was fundamental to the expansion of the modernity project
punishing mind
Definition: A concept that explores how modern societies use punishment as a tool for social control, discipline, and maintaining power structures.
Key Points:
• Rooted in Foucault’s ideas on discipline and surveillance
• Shift from physical punishment → psychological/internalized discipline
• Schools, workplaces, prisons reinforce self-policing behavior
Panopticon & surveillance
Disciplinary power: a form of social control that operates on individuals through surveillance, regulation, and classification
panopticism & its forms
A theory by Michel Foucault describing how power operates through surveillance, leading individuals to regulate their own behavior.
Key Points:
• Panopticon (Bentham’s prison design): Circular structure where inmates feel watched at all times → leads to self-discipline
• Forms of Panopticism Today:
• Schools: Testing, monitoring, discipline policies
• Workplaces: Productivity tracking, surveillance cameras
• Social Media: Algorithmic surveillance, data tracking
• Hospitals: Medical records, monitoring patients’ behaviors
biopower & biopolitics
Is not a disciplinary power; it compliments the disciplinary systems. It is used by state for population control, embedded with racism: « to fragment, to create caesuras within the biological continuum addressed by bio power. » « Not military, warlike, or political relationship, but a biological relation »
Deals with population, as a political problem, biological problem, and both scientific and political problems. (forecasts, statistical estimates, overall measures »
existing in institutions
Definition: How individuals are shaped by and navigate institutional structures that impose rules, roles, and expectations.
Key Points:
• Institutions enforce discipline, hierarchy, and norms
• Schools: Reinforce class, gender, and racial hierarchies
• Military: Extreme discipline, hierarchy, and nationalism
• Hospitals: Biopower (state control over bodies, health as social regulation)
• People internalize institutional norms, affecting identity and behavior
racial state & war
Kill the others and let your own citizens be killed, « improving one’s own race by eliminating the enemy race, but also a way of regenerating one’s own race » modern ex: Israel and Palestine war - Gaza Strip
economic capital
Influenced by Marx.
Individuals wealth, physical resources, production instruments > transformed into money, institutionalized as property rights. Ex; real estate, stocks, financial assets, etc
social capital
Sets of shared values or resources that allow individuals to work together in a group in order to effectively achieve a common purpose. Family names and titles. Ex: finding a job opportunity from a university classmate
cultural capital
Social assets of a person (education, speech, intellect, dress) that helps one move up in society. Individuals initial learning and unconsciously influenced by surroundings. It takes time.
3 sub states: embodied- long lasting dispositions of the mind and body. Objectified- cultural goods (books, pictures, dictionaries, machines, instruments), can recognize the value. Institutionalized- form of educational qualities.
what is symbolic capital?
Definition: Symbolic capital refers to prestige, status, and recognition that grant individuals social power.
Symbolic capital is often misrecognized as “natural” talent rather than a result of privilege
• Helps maintain class distinctions & social inequality
Key Points:
• Pierre Bourdieu’s Theory: Symbolic capital derives from other forms of capital:
Type of Capital | Definition | How It Converts to Symbolic Capital |
Social Capital | Networks & relationships | Connections = status, job opportunities, influence |
Cultural Capital | Knowledge, education, cultural competence | Elite tastes, education credentials = legitimacy |
Economic Capital | Wealth, assets | Money translates into status (e.g., philanthropy, elite schools) |
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