human ap exam 1

briefly describe how vitamin D is produced

vitamin D is made in the skin when sunlight converts a cholesterol compound into vitamin D3

list all the human coela that you can

thoracic cavity - pleural cavities and pericardial cavity

abdominopelvic cavity - abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity

clearly distinguish between positive and negative feedback mechanisms and give two examples of each in the human body

negative feedback - body reverses a change to maintain balance ex body temperature regulation and blood glucose regulation

positive feedback - body amplifies a change ex childbirth and blood clotting

construct a table to clearly distinguish between exocrine and endocrine across at least four points include a few examples too

Feature	Exocrine Glands	Endocrine Glands
Secretion type	Secrete substances into ducts	Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
Target area	Act on specific local areas (external or internal)	Affect distant target organs
Ducts presence	Have ducts	Ductless
Examples of secretions	Enzymes, sweat, saliva, mucus	Hormones like insulin, adrenaline, estrogen
Examples of glands	Salivary glands, sweat glands, pancreas (exocrine part)	Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas (endocrine part)

which epithelial tissues most commonly compose mucosae and where? which tissues compose serosae and where?

Mucosae: Lined by simple columnar or stratified squamous epithelium; found in tracts that open to the outside (e.g., digestive, respiratory).

Serosae: Lined by simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium); found in closed cavities (e.g., pleura, pericardium, peritoneum).

list the functions necessary to life

metabolism, anabolism, catabolism, growth, reproduction, homeostasis, response to stimuli, nutrition, respiration, transport

A coelom may afford many benefits.

organ development & function, cushioning & protection, efficient circulation, hydrostatic skeleton, greater body flexibility & complexity

Why is it necessary to spend so much energy on homeostasis?

cell function depends on stability, adaptation to external changes, energy enables regulation, survival & reproduction

I want to separate a brain into anterior and posterior. What cut should I make?

frontal section

I want to separate a urinary bladder into right and left halves. What cut should I make?

midsagittal cut

I want to separate a stomach into superior and inferior. What cut should I make?

transverse cut

Where are your organs most vulnerable and why?

abdomen because the vital organs

Briefly describe or outline the pathway of nitrogenous waste from stomach to excretion.

stomach - small intestine - liver - blood stream - kidney - ureters - bladder - urethra

What needs to be done to prepare a histological slide and why?

fixation & embedding & sectioning & staining

essential to preserve the tissue that is thin enough to view and clearly see cellular details

List the distinguishing characters of epithelial tissue

cellularity, polarity, attachment, vascularity, regeneration, specialized contacts

List the “distinguishing” characters of connective tissue.

cells are scattered, extracellular matrix, vascularity varies, supports & binds

List the components of ground substance

water, glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins and proteoglycans

Which type of cartilage is most abundant?

hyaline cartilage

What is the difference between a “blast” cell and a “cyte” cell?

blast cell - immature, active cell that builds or produces the matrix

cyte cell - mature, less active cell that maintains the matrix

List approximately one million things transported by blood.

gases, nutrients, hormones, heat, cells, water, electrolytes, plasma proteins, waste products

Describe the steps of tissue repair when damage (a wound) passes through both epidermis and dermis.

inflammation, clot & scab formation, proliferation & remodeling

List six cell types commonly found in connective tissue.

fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, adipocytes, plasma cells, leukocytes

Compare endocrine and exocrine glands—identify at least two similarities they share.

Comparison:

Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream without ducts. Exocrine glands use ducts to release substances like sweat or enzymes onto surfaces or into cavities.

Similarities:

1. Both are made of epithelial tissue.

2. Both secrete substances that help regulate body functions.

From memory, list all of the epithelial tissues

simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudeostratified columnar, stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar, transitional epithelium

list all the connective tissues.

loose connective tissue ( areolar, adipose, reticular )

dense connective tissue ( dense regular, dense irregular )

supporting connective tissue ( cartilage, hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage)

What is a “lumen”?

inner open space or cavity within a tubular structure in the bod

Which is not a layer of skin?

hypodermis

What is keratin? How is it advantageous? To better help you understand what keratin might feel and look like, make a long list of structures composed of or containing keratin.

keratin is a strong waterproof protein that protects and strengthens skin hair nails fur claws

Vitamin D is absorbed through the epidermis

Incorrect

Vitamin D and glycolipids are examples of cells found in the epidermis

Incorrect

Glycolipids plug intercellular junctions.

Correct

Apocrine sweat glands are only present in puberty.

Incorrect

Apocrine sweat glands are only active during puberty.

Correct

When apocrine sweat glands become active, eccrine sweat become inactive

Incorrect

Melanin is produced by keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum.

Incorrect

Stratum basale is the only living layer of the epidermis.

Incorrect

Keratin helps to ensure that fluid doesn’t permeate outer epidermal cells but what helps to ensure fluid doesn’t seep between these cells? Name two barriers.

tight junctions and glycolipids

Your skin is composed of two main layers. Name these layers, identify which is outermost and which is innermost, and provide at least three specific functions of each.

epidermis ( protection, waterproofing, barrier to chemical entry)

dermis ( sensation, supports & nourishes, thermoregulation)

List the three pigments responsible for skin color.

melanin, hemoglobin, carotene

List the five layers of the epidermis in order, from most superficial to most deep. Italicize the layer where new epidermal cells (keratinocytes) are made. Bold the layer comprised of dead cells which continually slough away. Underline the layer found only in the palms of your hands and soles of your feet.

Stratum corneum

Stratum lucidum

Stratum granulosum

Stratum spinosum

Stratum basale

What does "stratum" mean? What is the origin of the term “stratum granulosum”? What is the

origin of the term “stratum spinosum”? What is the origin of the term “stratum lucidum”?

stratum - layer

stratum granulosum - little grain

stratum spinosum - spine

stratum lucidum - clear or light

About how long does a keratinized epidermal cell last from the time it is “born” to the time it is shed?

4 - 6 weeks

28 - 45 days

What aspect of the dermis is expressed as fingerprints?

fingerprints are formed by the dermal papillae, which creates epidermal ridges on the skins surface

Where is sebum secreted? What purpose does it serve?

dermis ( moisturizes & protects skin, prevents dry hair, antibacterial properties)

What is cerumen? What is it comprised of?

ear wax ( sebum, sweat, dead skin cells, )

Where in the skin would you expect to find sebaceous and sweat glands? What about blood vessels and nerves?

dermis. dermis & hypodermis

Why do most children wait until puberty to start using antiperspirant?

body order starts when apocrine glands activate at puberty

where is melanin made

melanocytes - stratum basale - epidermis

Name describe several types of sensory receptors found in the skin. (I'm thinking a list of at least seven.)

free nerve ending, merkel discs, meissners corpuscles, pacinaian corpuscles, ruffini endings, krause end bulbs, hair follicle receptors

List at least ten stimuli detected by general sensory receptors.

touch, pressure, vibration, stretch, pain, temperature, itch, tickle, propioception, crude touch

Which tissue(s) comprise the dermis?

areolar connective tissue & dense irregular connective tissue

List ALL the functions of skin

protection, barrier, prevents water loss, thermoregulation, sensation, vitamin D synthesis, excretion, immune defense, uv protection, prevents chemical absorption, cushioning, stores fat, blood reservoir, detects injury, wound healing, communication, absorption, hair production, nail production, emotion expression and identification

Place the following layers in order from most basal to most apical.

Basal surface, basal lamina, reticular lamina, apical surface

Place the following in order from deep to superficial.

mediastinum, pericardium, ventral body cavity, thoracic cavity

What are “arrector pili”? How do arrector pili differ, in affecting thermoregulation, between humans and other mammals with much more hair, like a bear? What function do arrector pili performin all mammals?

Arrector pili are muscles that raise hair. In humans they cause goosebumps in hairy mammals they help trap heat

They aid insulation and threat display

Identify six adverse effects of sun exposure.

sunburn, premature aging, skin cancer, eye damage, DNA damage and immune suppression

Which of the following may be responsible for detecting stimuli?

sound receptors, odor receptors, tastast receptors, touch receptors

Which of the following may be responsible for planning responses to stimuli?

cerebellum, cerebrum, spinal cord

Which of the following may be responsible for eliciting

cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, glands

List the five special senses. Where are the organs that house the receptors for each?

vision, hearing, taste, balance and smell

Identify whether each is located relatively deep within the skin (D) or relatively near the surface (S).Then, identify whether each is encapsulated (E) or nonencapsulated (N).

Ruffini endings - D&S/E Hair follicle receptors - D/N Lamellar corpuscles - D/E Merkel cells - S/N Meissner’s corpuscles - S/E

Dark skin makes _ than light skin.

more melanosomes, darker melanin, longer lasting melanin

deep creases in skin over frequently used joints

flexure lines

internal space of a hollow organ

lumen

membrane directly covering/contacting organs within a coelom

visceral serosa

to dry out

desiccate

unusually pale skin

pallor

connective tissue or connective tissue elements underlying mucosal epithelium

lamina propia

predictable regions of especially loose reticular dermis

cleavage lines

maintenance of body temperature

thermoregulation

housing of chondrocytes

lacuna

unusually red skin

erythema

embryonic (germ) tissue that differentiates into the various connective tissues

messoderm

body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs pointing laterally

anatomical position

unusually blue skin

cyanosis

widespread, not limited to a particular locale or organ

general/ somatic

sensitive to stretch in tissues associated with joints

proprioceptors

dermis, but not epidermis, torn by stretch

striae

unusually yellow skin

jaundice

gradually filling up with keratin; leads to cell death

keratinization

layer of epidermis where granules of keratin and glycolipids become conspicuous

stratum granulosum