Week 3: Cognitive Development

This set of flashcards covers key terms and concepts related to cognitive development as discussed in developmental psychology, specifically focusing on object knowledge, physical knowledge, social knowledge, and conceptual knowledge.

Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible.

A-not-B error

A phenomenon in which an infant searches for an object where it was previously located (A) rather than where it was recently placed (B).

Violation of expectancy

A research method where infants show surprise at impossible events, indicating their understanding of object permanence.

Anticipatory looking

A behavior where infants look in a direction they expect an object to appear, suggesting mental representation of the object's existence.

Categorical hierarchies

The organization of objects into categories that reflect set-subset relations, helping infants understand relationships among items.

Psychological essentialism

The belief that living things possess an inner essence that defines their identity and contributes to their behaviors.

Causal relations

Understanding why objects are the way they are, which helps children learn and categorize new information.

Development of support relations

The gradual understanding that one object can support another, often developed through experience.

Physical knowledge

An infant's understanding of the physical properties of objects, including gravity and support.

Social knowledge

An infant's ability to understand intentions and actions of others, assigning goals and purposes to behavior.

Conceptual knowledge

General ideas that help organize and categorize objects and events, crucial for making sense of the world.

Number equality

The concept that sets of N objects share a common property, recognized even by newborns.

Infant understanding of addition

The ability of infants to perform approximate arithmetic involving the addition of objects and recognizing possible vs. impossible outcomes.

Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible.

A-not-B error

A phenomenon in which an infant searches for an object where it was previously located (A) rather than where it was recently placed (B).

Violation of expectancy

A research method where infants show surprise at impossible events, indicating their understanding of object permanence.

Anticipatory looking

A behavior where infants look in a direction they expect an object to appear, suggesting mental representation of the object's existence.

Categorical hierarchies

The organization of objects into categories that reflect set-subset relations, helping infants understand relationships among items.

Psychological essentialism

The belief that living things possess an inner essence that defines their identity and contributes to their behaviors.

Causal relations

Understanding why objects are the way they are, which helps children learn and categorize new information.

Development of support relations

The gradual understanding that one object can support another, often developed through experience.

Physical knowledge

An infant's understanding of the physical properties of objects, including gravity and support.

Social knowledge

An infant's ability to understand intentions and actions of others, assigning goals and purposes to behavior.

Conceptual knowledge

General ideas that help organize and categorize objects and events, crucial for making sense of the world.

Number equality

The concept that sets of N objects share a common property, recognized even by newborns.

Infant understanding of addition

The ability of infants to perform approximate arithmetic involving the addition of objects and recognizing possible vs. impossible outcomes.

What is dual representation?

The cognitive ability to view a symbolic object as both an object in itself and a representation of something else.

Which term refers to the realization that others have internal mental states (like beliefs or desires) that differ from one's own?

• A) Egocentrism

• B) Object permanence

• C) Theory of Mind

• D) Categorical hierarchy

C) Theory of Mind

What is subitizing?

A process by which infants and adults can look at a small number of objects (usually 1-3) and immediately know the quantity without counting.

Which counting principle states that each object being counted must be assigned exactly one number name?

• A) Cardinality principle

• B) Stable order principle

• C) One-to-one correspondence

• D) Order irrelevance

C) One-to-one correspondence

What is the difference between perceptual and conceptual categorization?

Perceptual categorization is based on shared physical features (like shape or color), while conceptual categorization is based on what objects are or what they do (their function).

Which developmental error is demonstrated when a child looks for a toy in its original hiding spot even after seeing it moved to a new one?

• A) Violation of expectancy

• B) A-not-B error

• C) Egocentrism

• D) Conservation error

B) A-not-B error

What is the 'Stable Order Principle' in counting?

The understanding that number names must always be recited in the same fixed order (e.g., 1, 2, 3) when counting objects.

Which research method relies on the fact that infants look longer at events that defy their understanding of the physical world?

• A) Habituation

• B) Anticipatory looking

• C) Violation of expectancy

• D) Social referencing

C) Violation of expectancy

Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible.

A-not-B error

A phenomenon in which an infant searches for an object where it was previously located (A) rather than where it was recently placed (B).

Violation of expectancy

A research method where infants show surprise at impossible events, indicating their understanding of object permanence.

Anticipatory looking

A behavior where infants look in a direction they expect an object to appear, suggesting mental representation of the object's existence.

Categorical hierarchies

The organization of objects into categories that reflect set-subset relations, helping infants understand relationships among items.

Psychological essentialism

The belief that living things possess an inner essence that defines their identity and contributes to their behaviors.

Causal relations

Understanding why objects are the way they are, which helps children learn and categorize new information.

Development of support relations

The gradual understanding that one object can support another, often developed through experience.

Physical knowledge

An infant's understanding of the physical properties of objects, including gravity and support.

Social knowledge

An infant's ability to understand intentions and actions of others, assigning goals and purposes to behavior.

Conceptual knowledge

General ideas that help organize and categorize objects and events, crucial for making sense of the world.

Number equality

The concept that sets of N objects share a common property, recognized even by newborns.

Infant understanding of addition

The ability of infants to perform approximate arithmetic involving the addition of objects and recognizing possible vs. impossible outcomes.

What is dual representation?

The cognitive ability to view a symbolic object as both an object in itself and a representation of something else.

Which term refers to the realization that others have internal mental states (like beliefs or desires) that differ from one's own?

• A) Egocentrism

• B) Object permanence

• C) Theory of Mind

• D) Categorical hierarchy

C) Theory of Mind

What is subitizing?

A process by which infants and adults can look at a small number of objects (usually 1-3) and immediately know the quantity without counting.

Which counting principle states that each object being counted must be assigned exactly one number name?

• A) Cardinality principle

• B) Stable order principle

• C) One-to-one correspondence

• D) Order irrelevance

C) One-to-one correspondence

What is the difference between perceptual and conceptual categorization?

Perceptual categorization is based on shared physical features (like shape or color), while conceptual categorization is based on what objects are or what they do (their function).

Which developmental error is demonstrated when a child looks for a toy in its original hiding spot even after seeing it moved to a new one?

• A) Violation of expectancy

• B) A-not-B error

• C) Egocentrism

• D) Conservation error

B) A-not-B error

What is the 'Stable Order Principle' in counting?

The understanding that number names must always be recited in the same fixed order (e.g., 1, 2, 3) when counting objects.

Which research method relies on the fact that infants look longer at events that defy their understanding of the physical world?

• A) Habituation

• B) Anticipatory looking

• C) Violation of expectancy

• D) Social referencing

C) Violation of expectancy

What is the 'Cardinality Principle' in counting?

The understanding that the last number word used in a count represents the total number of items in the set.

Which counting principle states that objects can be counted in any order (e.g., left-to-right or right-to-left) and still result in the same total?

• A) One-to-one correspondence

• B) Stable order principle

• C) Order irrelevance

• D) Cardinality principle

C) Order irrelevance

What is the 'Abstraction Principle' in counting?

The understanding that any collection of entities—whether physical objects or abstract ideas—can be counted.

In categorical hierarchies, which level (e.g., 'dog') is typically learned before the superordinate level (e.g., 'animal') or the subordinate level (e.g., 'poodle')?

• A) Primary level

• B) Basic level

• C) Functional level

• D) Essence level

B) Basic level

What is 'Naive Biology'?

The early understanding that living things grow, reproduce, and inherit traits, distinguishing them from non-living objects.

Which of the following best describes 'Naive Psychology'?

• A) A basic understanding of physical forces like gravity

• B) A commonsense level of understanding of oneself and others

• C) The belief that all moving objects are alive

• D) The ability to count up to 10

B) A commonsense level of understanding of oneself and others

What is 'Animism' in early childhood development?

The tendency to attribute life-like qualities, intentions, and feelings to inanimate objects.

Scale-model task

A research task where children must find a hidden toy in a real room based on its location in a miniature model, testing their dual representation skills.

Define ‘Object Permanence’ for (2 marks)

The cognitive understanding that objects continue to exist and maintain their identity even when no longer visible or perceptible. [1]

This concept is crucial in the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development, as infants learn to understand that objects exist independently of their immediate sensory experiences. [2]

Primary reason for the A-not-B error? (2 marks)

Immaturity of the prefrontal cortex leading to poor inhibitory control; the infant’s motor habits (reaching for A) overrides their mental representation of the new location (B).

Violation of Expectancy (VoE) Method. (2 marks)

A research technique where infants are shown an ‘impossible’ event; longer looking times suggests infant has an internal expectation that was violated.

Define ‘Psychological Essentialism’ for (2 marks)

The belief that living things have an underlying ‘essence’ (an unobservable internal quality) that makes them what they are and determines their traits.

Define ‘Basic Level Category’ for (2 marks)

The middle level in a categorical hierarchy (e.g., ‘dog’ vs. ‘animal’ or ‘poodle’); the first level children learn because members share many easily observable features.

What are the three levels of ‘Categorical Hierarchies’ (2 marks)

1. Superordinate (Very general, e.g., Furniture)

2. Basic (Medium, e.g., Chair)

3. Subordinate (Very specific, e.g., Armchair)

Define ‘Dispositional States’ for (2 marks)

Attributing stable internal traits or intentions to an agent (e.g., perceiving a shape as ‘helpful’ or ‘mean’ based on its actions)

Reaching in the Dark Study significance for (2 marks)

Challenged Piaget by showing that infants will reach for an object they can no longer see, suggesting they maintain a mental representation of it.

This study provides evidence that infants have an understanding of object permanence earlier than Piaget proposed, indicating cognitive abilities developing sooner than previously believed.

Define ‘Anticipatory Looking’ for (2 marks)

Eye movement tracking where an infant looks toward the spot they expect an object to emerge from behind a screen, indicating an expectation of continuity.

State the Nativist view on Number Knowledge for (2 marks)

The theory that humans are born with innate 'core concepts' and specialised brain mechanisms (like the intraparietal sulcus) for understanding quantity.

State the Empiricist view on Number Knowledge for (2 marks)

The theory that numerical understanding is acquired through experience, culture, and learning mechanisms rather than being innate.

Physical Knowledge: Gravity

By 7 months, infants show surprise (longer looking) at objects that violate gravity, such as a ball rolling up a slope unaided.

Understanding Intentionality (Hand vs. Object)

6-month-olds perceive human actions as goal-directed; they are surprised when a hand reaches for a new object, even if it is in the same location as the old one.

Causal Connections in Categorization

Understanding why an object has certain features (e.g., 'claws are for fighting') helps children group and remember categories more effectively.

Child-Basic Categories

Unique categories children form that are slightly different from adult basic levels, such as 'things that roll' instead of just 'balls'.

Perceptual Categorization

Grouping objects based on similar appearances, such as color, size, or specific parts (e.g., having legs or wheels).

Age infants distinguish self-produced motion

By 9-12 months, infants are surprised if inanimate objects move on their own, recognizing self-propulsion as a trait of living things.

Knowledge of Growth and Healing

3- and 4-year-olds understand that biological entities (like cats) can heal their own injuries, whereas inanimate objects (like chairs) cannot.

Age for recognizing environment's influence on gender

Around age 9 or 10, children begin to move past pure essentialism and recognize that the environment influences gender differences.

Define ‘Numerical Equality’ for (2 marks)

The realization that all sets of N objects share a common property (e.g., two dogs and two cups both share the 'twoness' property).

Explain the Social Blob Study (2 marks)

Infants follow the 'gaze' of a faceless blob if it behaves contingently (responsive to the infant), showing they attribute intention based on behaviour.

Piaget's Object Permanence Timeline

Piaget argued that object permanence does not fully develop until approximately 8 months of age.

Describe ‘Support Relations Development’ (2 marks)

Between 3 and 12.5 months, infants progressively refine their understanding of how much contact is needed for one object to support another.

Define ‘Infant Arithmetic’ for (2 marks)

4-to-5-month-olds look longer at outcomes that mathematically contradict simple addition or subtraction (e.g., 1+1=1).

Heredity in Preschoolers

3- and 4-year-olds know that physical traits (like heart color in the 'Bull' study) are passed from parents to offspring regardless of environment.