MEGA-REVIEW, HL (Qualitative/Quantitative Research, CLoA, BLoA, SCLoA, Abnormal, Developmental)

Nature-nurture debate

Ongoing discussion that centers on the degree to which any particular behavior is influenced by genetics/inherent traits vs. one's environment

Neuron

Individual cell of the brain and nervous system; responsible for transmitting information

Nature-nurture debate

Ongoing discussion that centers on the degree to which any particular behavior is influenced by genetics/inherent traits vs. one's environment

Neuron

Individual cell of the brain and nervous system; responsible for transmitting information

Nerve

A bundle of neurons

Dendrite

Neuron structure, responsible for receiving neurotransmitter messages from neighboring cells

Axon

Neuron structure, carries action potential away from cell body to terminals, to be passed on to next neurons in line

Action potential

Electrical "message" that travels through a neuron; at axon terminals, stimulates release of neurotransmitters into synapse

Threshold

The level of neurotransmitter stimulation required to trigger a new neural impulse in the next neuron -- an "all or nothing" action; either a new AP is generated, or it isn't

Synapse

Gap between two neurons, across which neurotransmitters travel

Myelin sheath

Neuron structure; fatty covering of axon, causes action potentials to travel faster

Axon terminal

Neuron structure; "end" of a neuron where neurotransmitters are contained and released into synapse

Neurotransmitter

Chemical used by a neuron to transmit an impulse across a synapse to another cell

Excitatory neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitter that stimulates receptor sites, speeding up/blocking further neurotransmission

Agonist

A chemical in the brain that, by binding to a receptor site, increases a neurotransmitter's effect

Inhibitory neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitter that blocks receptor sites, slows down/prevents further neurotransmission

Antagonist

A chemical in the brain that, by binding to a receptor site, decreases or blocks a neurotransmitter's effect

Reuptake

An "unreceived" neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, sleep, appetite, and anxiety/depression.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning, and the brain's pleasure and reward system

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurostransmitter involved in muscle stimulation, learning, and short-term memory.

Antonova, et al (2011)

Investigated the effect of scopolamine on formation of spatial memories -- experimental condition received a scopolamine injection, control received a placebo -- both placed in fMRI and then participated in "arena game," a VR game where they're in an arena and have to wander around to find a pole -- once found, screen blanks for 30 secs, pats. told to rehearse how they found the pole -- then they play again, using their memory from the first time -- then, 4 weeks later, they returned, were placed in opposite conditions, and repeated the process -- scopolamine injections = reduced hippocampus activity -- conclusion = ACH as a neurotransmitter plays important role in formation of spatial memory, and scopolamine is an important ACH antagonist

Fisher, Aron, & Brown (2005)

Studied the role of dopamine in romantic love -- 10 men, 7 women, all of whom reported being "intensely in love" placed in fMRI scanner, then shown a series of photos of people -- some of neutral acquaintances, some of their loved one -- dopamine-producing brain regions were more active when shown photos of loved one, and dopamine is known to be associated with feelings of pleasure -- concluded that dopamine activity in brain plays a role in romantic love

Localization

Concept that different brain regions are particularly involved in various brain functions

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of the brain, containing hundreds of billions of neurons; associated with higher-level thinking and personality

Amygdala

Brain region located in the midbrain -- most clearly involved in fear and anger responses

Phelps & Sharot (2007)

Studying if there's physiological evidence for flashbulb memories (FBM's) as separate memory type -- 24 NY'ers placed in fMRI scanner, asked to recall 9/11 experiences, and also other, unrelated events from summer of 2001 -- amygdala activity was higher for those who'd been CLOSER to Trade Center on 9/11, compared to those who'd been a little further north -- concluded that amygdala is involved in the formation of FBM's, helping explain why FBM's include strong emotional content

Hippocampus

Seahorse-shaped brain region located in the temporal lobes (left and right), above the ears -- research has made clear that it is crucial in the transferring of SHORT-term memories into LONG-term storage

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of previously-stored memory, usually from the time period before the events causing the memory loss

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to convert new information from short-term memory into the long-term, stored memory

Procedural memory

Memory of how to perform functions, to do a thing

Episodic memory

Memory of life events

Semantic memory

Memory of facts, concepts, meaning

H.M. case study

Patient who had extensive brain surgery to correct epileptic seizures which left him with severe anterograde amnesia -- hippocampus was removed entirely -- intelligence and memory from before the surgery were normal but it was almost impossible for him to create new, permanent memories -- showed that hippocampus plays key role in converting STM to LTM -- ALSO shows the effectiveness of fMRI scans in confirming suspected brain damage, and how that brain damage is responsible for changes in behavior (e.g., memory loss)

Endocrine system

Series of glands that produce hormones, which in turn impact physiology and behavior

Hormones

Chemicals produced by various glands that transmit messages to the body via the bloodstream

Target cells

Cells that have receptors for a particular hormone -- hormones will either increase or decrease the target cell's function

Oxytocin

Hormone secreted by the hypothalamus in the brain, associated with bonding of mother and child. Stimulated by touch & hugs; the "trust hormone."

Baumgartner, et al (2008)

Investigated the role of oxytocin after breaches of trust in a trust game -- participants placed in fMRI scanner, then given either a placebo or oxytocin nasal spray -- then, played a "trust game" against a computer, where he/she decides whether to share money with another, who sometimes shared back later, sometimes did not -- those taking oxytocin continued to trust, and to share again in the future, at higher rates than placebo group -- also, oxytocin group showed decreased responses in amygdala (known to be associated with fear and anger) -- concluded that oxytocin plays a key role in human trust

De Dreu, et al (2011)

Investigated role of oxytocin in human ethnocentrism -- experimental group given oxytocin nasal spray, control group, a placebo -- both groups exposed to images of an in-group and an out-group -- then, asked to respond to the train-based "moral dilemma" situation, whether to sacrifice one person by pushing them onto train track to save five others -- when asked to sacrifice an OUT-group person, same results in both conditions -- when asked to sacrifice an IN-group person, lower results in oxytocin group -- concluded that oxytocin is involved in liking/favoring one's own group

Neuroplasticity

The ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells -- happens in response to experience (learning) and/or trauma (actual brain damage or traumatic events)

Stressor

Acute or chronic environmental stimulus that threatens to disrupt physiological balance; begins a stress response

Dendritic branching

The growth of connections between neurons, in response to environmental stimulation (e.g., learning) that results in faster, more efficient neurotransmission

Draganski, et al (2004)

Studied if brain changes in response to learning -- two groups, jugglers and non-jugglers, neither of whom had any juggling experience -- brain scan taken -- then, juggler condition takes 3 months of juggling lessons, non-juggler condition does not -- second brain scan taken -- then, both groups told not to juggle -- finally, third scan taken -- after second scan, juggler group = more gray matter in brain regions associated with physical coordination -- after third scan, juggler group STILL had more gray matter than non-jugglers -- concluded than learning leads to brain growth, showing neuroplasticity at work

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Disorder triggered by a terrifying event - either experiencing it or witnessing it; connected to raised levels of the hormone cortisol and smaller hippocampus size

Bremner, et al (2003)

Studied link between hippocampal size, prolonged stress exposure, and cortisol levels -- some participants had suffered childhood sexual abuse AND been diagnosed with PTSD, some had been abused WITHOUT diagnosis, and some had not been abused at all -- MRI scans taken of all brains -- then, participants completed a memory test -- both abused groups showed deficits in STM -- hippocampus was SMALLER in abused women's groups -- shows clear correlation between abuse (stress), memory issues, and hippocampal size, showing neuroplasticity at work

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Graphical record of brain-wave activity obtained through electrodes placed on the scalp and forehead -- helps see which areas of brain are active, and in what ways -- but can't show actual brain functioning, which parts are doing what

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain by measuring changes in the blood's oxygen levels -- shows both structure and activity of brain, and has high resolution, colorful images -- but, expensive = limits sample sizes = limits generalizability -- and, have to be very still while imaging is being taken

Magnetoencephalogram (MEG)

A technique that can measure the actual amount of neural activity in various regions of the brain -- no need for patient to keep still -- but, very expensive = limits sample sizes = limits generalizability

Palva, et al (2010)

Aimed to investigate the interaction of neuronal networks in the cerebral cortex in relation to working memory model -- data from EEG and MEG used to identify patterns of interaction within the brain -- some neural networks (occipital lobe, right hemisphere) were active during VISUAL tasks, others (temporal lobe, left hemisphere) more active during HEARING tasks, and others (frontal, parietal lobes) most active in coordinating attention -- shows biological basis for the working memory model, and how scan technology can be used to show COGNITIVE processes happening

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Ladder-like molecules within each cell - contains our basic hereditary information - basic building block for genes and chromosomes

Genes

Long sections of DNA ladder, containing instructions for particular traits (e.g., freckles) - between 20K - 25K genes per cell

Chromosomes

Pairs of 23 really long strands of tightly-wound DNA - so 46 total - each contains hundreds of genes

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes -- the heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied -- estimates range from 1.00% (ALL variability of the trait is due to genes) to 0.00% (NO variability of the trait is due to genes)

Family studies

Scientific studies in which researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble each other on a specific trait

Twin studies

Scientific studies in which researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait

Monozygotic (MZ) twins

Twins who have exactly the same genotype; also called identical twins

Dizygotic (DZ) twins

Fraternal (nonidentical) twins -- born at the same time, but not from the same fertilized egg, so genetic material is different

Equal environment fallacy

Assumption that twins (either MZ or DZ) grow up in an "equal" environment, and so any differences between them must be due to genetics -- an INCORRECT assumption, as even twins are not treated literally identically by parents

Epigenetics

Study of how environmental influences/stresses (e.g., trauma, starvation) can lead to changes in how a gene EXPRESSES itself, without the DNA structure itself changing -- and these changes are then passed on to offspring -- points out that genetic structure is to some degree influenced by environment

Multiplier effect

Idea that small inborn genetic advantages can be magnified by one's environment -- different genes may predispose people to seek out different environments, which in turn "magnify" the genetic advantage's usefulness (e.g., a tall person choosing to try out for basketball, and finding his/her height helps them be a better player)

Diathesis stress model

Theory that a person can have a predisposition to some behavior (at the BLoA, due to GENETICS), but that a specific environmental stimulus is needed to "trigger" the behavior's emergence

Kendler, et al (2006)

Twin study (some MZ's, some DZ's) -- interviews assessed lifetime depression prevalence amongst twin participants -- results showed that heritability rates were significantly higher amongst MZ's than DZ's -- also showed that overall, heritability of depression = 0.38 -- concluded that genetics do play a significant role in depression's prevalence within a population

Border et al (2019)

Meta-analysis to critically review existing research on the connection between particular genes and vulnerability to Major Depressive Disorder -- Researchers reviewed two decades of research on 18 "candidate genes" -- These 18 genes were actually no more related to MDD vulnerability than any other random gene scientists might have chosen to study -- contribution of genetics in the development of MDD is far more complex than once thought; must avoid being reductionistic

Evolutionary theory

Theory arguing that the environment presents a challenge to each organism -- those who adapt best = more likely to survive, thrive, and breed - and thus pass on their genes

Adaptation

Traits that improve an individual's ability to survive and reproduce

Genetic mutation

First necessary mechanism in evolution -- alterations in an organism's DNA structure; totally random

Natural selection

Second necessary mechanism in evolution -- a random mutation either helps the organism survive, or it hinders it -- if it helps, then the environment "selects" that trait as a favorable one -- the organism will live, breed, and pass on that gene to the population

Ad hoc reasoning

Taking an observable phenomenon and creating an unverifiable story for how it developed -- a means of critiquing evolutionary psychology and how it explains behavior

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence -- means of critiquing evolutionary psychology and how it explains behavior

Curtis, et al (2004)

Aimed to determine the effect of natural selection on the disgust response -- participants from 165 countries shown 20 images and asked to rank them in their level of disgust, in an online survey -- 7 pictures were given in pairs, in which one was potentially harmful to the immune system and the other was not -- found that disgust response was highest towards things that are ACTUALLY a danger to immune system -- also found that disgust responses were higher amongst the young -- and higher amongst women -- concluded that disgust is an evolved behavior related to reproduction, to help protect fetus in situations where mother encounters/eats something poisonous

Fessler, et al (2005)

Aimed to see how women's bodies react to the changes in their immune system caused by pregnancy -- web survey given to pregnant women -- asked to rate current nausea levels, and also "disgust sensitivity" in eight areas (e.g., food, body products, etc.) -- found that disgust sensitivity highest in relation to FOOD, and highest in FIRST trimester, early in pregnancy -- concluded that this shows an evolved behavior, where nausea/vomiting evolved to protect fetus when mother eats poisonous food

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Deep culture

Invisible, unspoken beliefs, attitudes, and ways of expression (implicit)

Surface culture

Visible, apparent behaviors - such as our language, what we wear, listen to, eat, etc.

Cultural norms

Expected behaviors typical to a cultural group - the ways people speak and act in order to assure their survival and well-being

Cultural transmission

The process by which one generation passes culture on to the next generation

Etic research

Attempt to objectively analyze and compare different cultural norms, in attempt to study universal human behaviors and attitudes

Emic research

Studying thoughts, emotions, behaviors unique to a specific culture ("through their eyes")

Enculturation

The receiving of cultural information passed on by parents, schools, the media, etc -- this happens TO a person

Gatekeepers

Those responsible for passing on cultural information, norms, etc. -- parents, schools, the media, etc.

Martin & Halvorsen (1983)

Studying how gender schema influence memory -- 48 children (24 of each sex) as participants; all shown pictures, some of which were "in line" with "appropriate" traditional gender schema, some of which were inconsistent with gender schema -- a week later, given a memory test on what they had seen -- participants were more likely to have distorted memories of photos that were inconsistent with gender schemas -- supports idea that children are powerfully influenced by gender schema

Acculturation

A process occurring when a person comes into contact with a new culture, and chooses to adopt some/all of the new culture -- typically accompanied by some degree of anxiety, and happens to differing degrees, depending on the person

Cohen, et al (1996)

Male University of Michigan students as participants - some from "northern" states, some from "southern" states - a confederate bumped into the participant, and called him a derogatory name -- "Southerners" (compared to "northerners") were more likely to:

1. have elevated levels of cortisol, hormone associated with stress/arousal

2. have elevated levels of testosterone,hormone associated with aggression/dominance

3. respond with actual aggressive/dominant behavior

4. get angry at insult (85%, vs. 35% for "northerners")

"Southern" culture is a "culture of honor," where insults diminish a man's reputation, and thus call for aggression and violence in return (ETIC research!)

Cultural Dimensions Theory

Theory that seeks to characterize a culture's norms according to six indices (power distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, long-term orientation, and indulgence) -- an attempt to be able to "measure" cultures relative to one another.

Individualistic culture

Culture that emphasizes the worth of the individual and his/her choices, expression, and happiness

Collectivist culture

Culture that stresses "we," not "I"; focus is on harmonious relationships, quality of life, the success of the group as a whole

Hofstede, et al (1980)

Aimed to explain differences in observed behavior -- survey of 117,000 employees of a global company (40 different countries); concluded that differences in behavior are a consequence of culture (as opposed to genetics), a sort of "mental software" that is difficult to unlearn -- also noted that cultures tend to fall along different "dimensions" (spectrums) in different areas of behavior, thought, etc. -- the foundation of Cultural Dimensions Theory

Conformity

Adjusting one's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors so they're in agreement with group standards; key informal means by which a society passes on cultural values and behaviors

Berry (1967)

Three different cultures studied: Temne people (of Sierra Leone; agricultural/communal), Scottish (Scotland; hunters/independent), Inuits (Canada; hunters/independent) -- Researchers used a famous conformity task: Participants shown with a series of lines of varying length - one was the "target line," the other eight were presented under it -- participants were asked to identify which line was of equal length to the target line -- participants then given a "hint" identifying one line (which was NOT of equal length to the target line) as the one "most" people chose (to try to heighten desire to conform) -- Tenme people were significantly more likely to accept the suggestion of a "cultural norm" than the other two groups

Inuit ignored the suggestion almost entirely -- perhaps agricultural cultures (like the Temne) need people to work together, to come to consensus and agreement to survive -- maybe hunter-gatherer cultures (e.g., the Inuit) are helped more by individual initiative (exploring, finding new food sources, willingness to disagree/try a new way) -- supports Cultural Dimensions theory

Social Identity Theory

People seek to improve self image and self esteem through identifying with various groups and taking on their group norms.

Ingroup

The social group with which a person identifies, seen as having positive traits

Outgroup

The social group(s) with which a person does not identify, seen as having undesirable traits

Social categorization

Categorizing people, based on our perception of their shared characteristics, into ingroups and outgroups

Social identification

Adopting the identity of the group we have categorized ourselves as belonging to -- taking on their beliefs and behaviors

Social comparison

The comparison of one's ingroup to other outgroups in ways that seek to raise the ingroup's self-esteem

Positive distinctiveness

The motivation to show that one's ingroup is preferable to any outgroups -- punishment and reward are used to motivate group members to demonstrate the ingroup's superiority

Tajfel (1970)

64 British schoolboys (age 14-15), all of whom knew each other well prior to the experiment, broken into 8 groups of 8 -- boys shown clusters of varying numbers of dots flashed onto a screen - then asked to estimate how many dots were in each cluster -- then, experimenters randomly assigned boys to conditions - "over-estimator" or "under-estimator," "accurate" or "inaccurate," etc.

Lastly, the boys had to allocate small amounts of money to the other boys - the only things they knew about the other boys is whether or not they belonged to the same, or a different, group -- large majority of the boys gave more money to members of their own group (ingroup) than to other group (outgroup) members -- discrimination between groups clearly displayed -- ingroup favoritism clearly displayed -- even the idea of being part of a group, even if it's a group based on the flimsiest of differences produces group bias

Minimal group paradigm

The phenomenon that even when people are arbitrarily assigned to a group, they tend to favor those who are placed in the same group, even when the distinctions between groups is tiny, meaningless

Observational learning

Watching models, then considering the outcomes of their behavior (reward or punishment), then deciding to imitate them or not

Vicarious reinforcement

Process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior

ARRM

The four necessary factors for observations learning to take place -- attention, retention, reproduction, motivation