T&C material - Persian war and cultural identities

Bisitun, Darius’ rock relief

• 520-19BC, Bisotun, still there (along Royal road from Sardis to Susa)

• Shows Persian king Darius before 10 ‘lying kings’ (with hands tied behind and connected by rope around their necks = explicit suppression)

  • Has bow! Sign of royalty (+ large beard attached as separate block of stone = significance of large beard)

  • All kings are named with small inscriptions - why?

    • + all kings individualised by their clothing eg. Skunka has pointed hat (success across empire)

• Stepping on Gaumata before him, as he lifts his hand (in thanks / greeting?) to Ahura mazda who floats above the prisoners = brought them to him?

• Much larger than the prisoners and even his guards

• This relief was placed up = stop defacing of message? (to the gods, not for people?)

  • But has writing in three different languages - Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian

  • Paradox of accessibility

  • Also perhaps because mountains were seen as sacred = ‘place where the gods dwell’ = for divinity? At least adds divine element

• Post-revolt statement to cement his own power (common response of coup ruler - see Nereid monument)

Susa glazed brick reliefs, guards

• 480BC, Susa, British museum on loan from Louvre

• Glazed brick - goes back to Elamite temple of Chogha Zanbil 13th BC

• Portrayal of a Persian ‘immortal’ = ideal warrior (found in the apadana at Susa, built by Darius)

  • Part of larger frieze representing rows of guards (similar to the guards that stand behind Darius!)

  • Susa was where Greek diplomats met the king = would have known that they use range of weaponry but emphasise archery (portrayal as weak man like Paris)

• Side-profile, in walking pose = quite similar to Greek stelai!

• Have a spear like Greek warriors, and also a bow (not only weapon)

  • + have patterned costume, but not a jumpsuit (more like long-sleeve dress down to ankles)

  • Bright colours (yellow etc.)

  • Has beard like Greek portrayals but much more schematically rendered (like hair - snailcurls)

  • Angular faces with forehead transitioning into nose imperceptibly (skin painted dark)

• No expression conveyed = not in action, not doing anything, just a representation of the ideal Persian warrior (might also be for intimidation purposes = show the power of Persia)

Persepolis apadana map

• 1st half of 6th century, Persepolis Iran

• 450×300m (Acropolis is 300x125m!)

• Ceremonial rather than urban (a symbolic capital)

• Enter the palace of Persepolis through the Gate of All Nations

  • But have to go up main stairs to even reach this = all above you (closer to divine? but also emphasise superiority)

  • 21m tall

  • Has Lamassu on either side (winged bulls with lion legs and human face) which were associated with divinity

  • Wings in Persian culture / bulls in Babylonian culture

  • Held an apotropaic function here (= those entering were already intimidated)

• Then go through corridor (unfinished army road) between rows of high columns = all done to make you feel small

  • And show the wealth of the empire (room of 100 columns = how many they could have)

  • Also create sense of succinctness = all have columns (nothing is different, but one rule that remains the same = sense of imperial stability)

• Then to see the king, have to enter up the stairs of the apadana where you see the relief tribute-bearers

  • Apadana had unique feature - open (columned) verandas on 3 sides

  • Columns were more Greek than Assyrian or Egyptian (influence of Ionic taking over from Doric BUT closer flutes)

  • All built by paid workers (slavery was forbidden by Zoroastrianism)

Persepolis apadana relief

• 1st half of 6th century, Persepolis Iran

• Very low relief

• Tribute-bearers would follow you as you walked up to see the king yourself

  • = reminder of your position (even if not there to carry tribute = will always be in inferior position to king)

  • The ones shown here are the Babylonians (conical caps with tassles) - Herod says they give a large tribute (enough for 1/3 of army) but here give small bowls and garments - dissonance

  • & Lydians (beginning of register = importance!) - bring a horse

• Also emphasise the size of empire - so many different peoples and all consciously individualised (even if not correct, shows range)

  • Also use animals to show geographical range (camel with one hump, with two humps, bulls)

• + not dragged (all willingly going = idealism that everyone is content under the imperial rule)

• Also shows how they view Greeks (have Ionians here too)

  • Wearing himations & chitons

  • Bringing high-status fabrics (Greeks as known as fabric-makers)

  • And the fabric has tassles like on their chitons = same?

• Meant to be a relief of king at centre, but old one was removed (placed in treasury = of king receiving proskynesis)

Persepolis audience relief

• 1st half of 6th century, Persepolis Iran

• Dark limestone with metallic finish that turns almost black

• All the tribute bearer reliefs culminate at this relief of the King seated on throne ready to receive the tributes

  • He is larger than the other figures, but also on small platform (physical superiority)

    • Feet not on the ground but resting on a stool = importance (!)

  • Crown prince the only other on the platform (holds lotus - symbol of eternity)

  • Both have large beards (longest) and all have schematic hair (beaded)

• And Magian standing behind the platform (with soft turban - padam)

  • And then soldier with double-axe and arrow, + Persian dagger

• Facing Darius are two incense-bruners and then a man sending a kiss (hand placed upon his lips)

  • Persian who brings the different delegates

• Remember that all would be covered (and appeared under gazebo)

Kroisos’ kouros

• 530BC, Anavyssos, Attica

• 6th century had only two generic representations of aristocrats (even stelai had same poses)

• Initially inspired by Egyptian figures (but these were more like reliefs and were clothed

• Very schematic styling until naturalism of the late 6th and then even more in early classical

• Kroisos as warrior (potentially had small cap on head that would protect head from helmet)

  • Almond-shaped eyes and Archaic smile (meant to convey life)

  • Had painted pubic hair in ‘fish-tail’ = took care of oneself = wealthy

• But more natural than the new-york kouros (V-shape has become fleshier hips)

Acropolis kore 682

• 500BC, Acropolis, MofAc

• Perserschutt - votive for Athene that survived the destruction of the Acropolis and were buried (thus can be dated to pre-480)

• Typical heavily stylised kore with layers of different dress (Ionian chiton & skirt with himation over top - viewed as luxurious and ‘oriental’)

  • Has head-piece (stephane) & earrings

  • Hair is beaded and comes in braids down each side (some knowledge of gravity in how the braids fall into crevice between arms and breasts)

• Very frontal (no attempt to show a pose or limbs moving) and has Archaic smile like Kroisos

Andokides performers amphora

• c. 520, Louvre

• Pot showing kitharode - performance of kithara surrounded by two male figures (one holding flower, the other smelling)

• Covered head to toe in robes which are patterned (compare to contemporary korai which dresses was populated with symbols or images)

  • + see attempt to show the folds in the fabric even in paint

  • Man on left has hair in three braids that fall over shoulder (shows the care in appearance)

• All meant to convey their wealth = time to engage in music, patterns show care in the material and thus wealth

Louvre Niobid krater

• c. 460BC, Louvre

• Shift in how bodies are represented (Post-Persian!)

  • Apollo is represented here nude in dynamic pose (not stationary!) as stretches with his bow to attack one of Niobe’s sons

    • But still quite static (muscles don’t respond to action)

  • His musculature is shown with sharp black lines (idealising body form)

  • Short hair and severe expression (comp to Archaic smile)

  • Himation only dress, thrown over one arm

• Artemis is also wearing peplos (could be an expression of female costume become more modest and less patterned = separation from the Near Eastern aestheticising)

Riace bronzes

• c. 460BC, Reggio Calabria

• 2 original bronzes found in the Med seas = representative of the new post-Persian war severe period (originally holding weapons as most do - shield on left, spear in right)

• No longer static and frontal, but now in unique contraposto pose with hip tilted up and foot outwards facing = breaking the archaic symmetry

  • Also shows naturalism as walking pose now has some impact on the anatomy

  • Combination of striking naturalism & unrealistic idealism

• Also shows a level of characterisation (not seen in kouroi) in which the two figures are distinguished (one is hero / divine and the other is more contemporary & for sure mortal)

  • Riace B’s hip also tilts out further

  • B could have been wearing a helmet & A a garland

• Also lack of archaic smile, and use of different, new materials like glass paste and silver teeth (+ would have originally been polished to a tan bronze colour = trying to be an imitation of man)

• Lead dowels installed in their feet = originally mounted on a base = part of statue group?

• Debate about who they are meant to represent (idealism! So hard to tell) & if actual Severe or Hellenistic recreations

Salamis stele

• c. 420BC, Salamis, Athens

• Stele - funerary relief (cenotaph - empty grave purely for memorialisation)

  • Chairedemos & Lykeas - two casualities in the Peloponnesian war

  • A Lykeas appears on casuality list from 410BC (as a triarchon! But presented as a hoplite = rhetoric of the hoplite)

  • Chairademos is given all attributes of the Classical era heroic warrior (muscular torso with well-defined abdominal and chest muscles)

  • = glorification of the warrior (seen in the public and the private sphere)

• Shows layering of figures as man in foreground and another in background

  • Foreground is nude, showing the contraposto post through the tip of the left hip and the gliding right leg

  • Foreground also has cloak accentuating his figure (not practical)

  • Other has chiton

• Both have spears & large shields = hoplite armour

Mourning Athene stele

• c. 460BC, Acropolis, MofA

• Votive stele - in public?

• Wearing Athene iconography = Corinthian helmet and old-fashioned peplos

• Holds her spear to her head - is this a sign of mourning?

  • Many have extrapolated and seen the block she appears to look at as a stele with list of names of the war-dead

  • But no clear evidence that this pose is even mourning (anachronistic?) - some see it as exhausted, and others imbue no emotion

  • Gestures in ancient world different to now (bowed head is usually for god looking down on worshippers!)

• Very simple folds to her dress (but not entirely vertical but follow the lines of her body)

  • Thick, body-concealing Attic peplos

  • Breasts only slightly revealed and almost volute style to the skirt of dress = caryatids on Erechtheion

  • Also has Corinthian helmet = glory of the past (+ quick signal as Athene)

Berlin Foundry cup

• Early 5th c. , Berlin

• Painting on the outside of the kylix by the Foundry painter (this is his name piece and has others like it)

  • Important for depictions of the everyday

  • Tondo shows Hephaestus making the divine armour for Achilles!

  • Actual depictions - metal workshops in the Kerameikos

• Shows an interest in the process of sculpting, not only finished project

  • Bronze sculpture being worked on, stands in wooden scaffolding

  • Sculpture as idealised hero - strong strike forward, holding spear and shield with helmet revealing long hair tumbling down shoulders (but quite archaic looking, with large buttocks and thigh, and unnaturalistic twist of the body)

  • Comp to Riace A

  • Wears helmet, but cheek-guards folded upwards to depict face more clearly

  • Hammer & scraper lie nearby

  • Two men stand on each side watching = who are they? Buyers? Or passers-byer as have strigil and aryballos in background

• Other side of Foundry has a much more unfinished figure

  • Lying on the ground on its back with no head (head has hair cut close to head = athlete?)

  • Portrayal of the two different types of male ideal at the time

Delphi charioteer

• 470s BC, Delphi

• Excavated overlooking temple of Apollo

  • + inscribed block with two dedications (original = ruler of Gela, but then cut back for second dedication = Polyzalos, tyrant - for Pythian games)

• Basic form = charioteer in chariot, led by at least 4 horses attended by groom (characteristic charioteer costume with long chiton to ankles)

  • Portrayed during victory lap? (calmness suggests not during the race)

• Some fragments of horses (more finely worked than charioteer himself = paid-up lacky contrasted to horses as star of show in chariot races)

• Head - severe look, pouty lips, cap of short hair close to scalp (= cold-work of curls), eyes of glass-paste & semi-precious stones, eyelashes of copper & silver teeth inside mouth

  • Soft side-curls = teenager (charioteers chosen for height and lightness)

  • Wears the xystin (fastened by wide belt) - odd for time period as many would have appeared nude

• Feet - finely observed with veins and bones clearly shown

• Contrast to marble Motya charioteer from similar time (470-60BC) with dynamic pose (weight shifted, arm is akimbo to hip that is pushed out, right leg pushed forward = is the aristocrat himself?)

Motya charioteer

• c. 460BC, Motya, Mozia (Motya was Phoenician colony = could have stolen the statue from elsewhere on Sicily)

• Coarse-grained white marble with cloudy grey vertical streaking (would have been coloured)

• 5’11

• Wearing a chiton specifically for riding (xystis) = characterised as a charioteer

  • Has two holes on the belt where reins would be fastened (means that they couldn’t be pulled from hand, but also that he would go flying with the chariot if a crash)

• But different to Delphi charioteer!

  • Fabric clings to the body, accentuating the unique pose (as well as his genitalia that would usually be revealed)

  • Left hip shifts up as weight-bearing leg (right glides out)

  • Left hand on hip to emphasise

• Archaic snail-curls on brow = aristocrat!

  • Potentially wearing a headdress (bronze pins inserted into surface of head above row of snailcurls)

  • Face less plump and fleshy than other statues of the time eg. Blonde boy & Olympian Apollo

  • Head at different angle - looking to left (+ tilts downward slightly)

  • Marble instead of bronze like Delphi

• Could be either Nikomachos or Thrasyboulos

Persian bowman, Berlin painter amphora

• c. 480BC, Getty museum

• Attic red-figure terracotta storage vase

• Greek portrayal of Persian warrior

• Wearing skin-tight jumpsuit = opposite to Greek male ideals

  • Body fully covered (cont. to heroic nudity) and also patterned (aesthetic over practicality) = Athenian fantasy of the ‘barbarian’

    • Orange-painted loin-cloth attached to which is a bow case / quiver (North & East of Greece)

  • Holds bow out in front = priority of the bow as weapon as choice (but no arrows = failure at even own standard)

  • Also has very long sword (machaira) which Aesch comments on in its impracticality in battle (but could be symbol of courage?)

  • Has mitra (upon head that turns back potentially to watch his attacker) & pointed shoes

    • Full ginger beard and moustache and and orange hair peeks out of cap = non-Greek (+ snub nose)

• Contrast to the Greek hoplite on the opposing side (Corinthian helmet, spear uplifted and large shield = all practical and ready for action)

Edinburgh cup, Triptomelos painter

• c. 480BC, Edinburgh

• Tondo of kylix - portrayal of Greek victory over Persian (outside scene is battle also)

  • Greek takes up most space on the circle (and feet overlapped)

    • Wearing greaves, cuirass of stiffened linen over short robe with many folds, holds up kopis sword, used for slashing

  • The Persian (with Phrygian cap and stripped jumpsuit) is pressed up to side of the painted bottom of cup

    • Is in attempt to fight back, but in vain

  • Has bow but it is hidden behind the Greek’s round shield (has Pegasus = symbol of peace over chaos as killed Chimera)

    • Wearing typical mitra and his gorytos is visible (but also wields a kopis sword)

• Shows the submissive and beaten Persian

Fleeing Persian, Basel krater

• c. 450BC, Basel (Calyx krater)

• Portrayal of fleeing Persian & defeated Persian

• Side B Persian is being hit by the Greek’s spear and thus leans back (unnaturally)

  • Has on the patterned jumpsuit (here with vertical lines)

  • And Phrygian cap & bow (all indicators of Persian)

• In contrast to off-balance pose of Persian, Greek is very fixed (assured)

  • Has his long spear and large shield

  • Only wearing a cloak which reveals legs (tactical nudity = only hoplite gear and perhaps a cloak)

  • Has long hair and long, seemingy wavy beard = mature man

• Side A has Persian in flight, as he faces forward to the audience (= terror, like Eurymedon jug)

  • Legs stand far apart, both arms to the side in frontal view

Eurymedon jug (Hamburg)

• c. 460BC, Hamburg

• Oinochoe with single handle (terracotta = different materials for portrayal & decoration)

• Nude Greek hoplite runs forth as he holds his erect phallus

  • Nude Greek has square Scythian cloak (+ scraggly sideburns & little goatee & unkempt hair = non-elite

  • Many have seen this as the man running to sexually assault the Persian who leans over and holds his hands to his head

  • ‘Persian’ looks at observer = in danger

  • Wearing typical patterned jump-suit, has quiver (Scythian-style gorytos) & Phrygian cap & bushy beard (= not a youth, so shouldn’t be an eromenos)

• Words out of Greek mouth - I am Eurymedon, but you stand over

  • (Battle between Greeks and Persians at river Eurymedon in western Anatolia)

• Sexuality as means of navigating power (even in military warfare)

  • Sexually submissive = weak (just like femininity is used to weaken & demean the foreign enemy)

• Some have seen this not as a scene of sexual assault, but as a mock epic of sorts (style of the ‘Greek’ and ‘Persian’ mens dress could be Scythian - problematises the simple sexual reading)

  • BUT is this simply revealing of the Greek inability to distuinguish the ‘foreign’

Croesus’ amphora

• 500-480BC, Louvre

• Greek portrayal of the Croesus tale (on side of belly amphora)

  • Quasi-mythological figure, but his city of Sardis was real!

    • Which fell to Cyrus in 545BC

    • Mounted pyre as punishment, but Apollo’s rain extinguished the flames (was pardoned by Cyrus and then became chief advisor to Cyrus)

  • Closely connected to Greek religion (See Herod on his votives & oracles at Delphi) so interesting he still fell

  • Sits on elaborate throne with leopard skin pelt, pouring libation from phiale & holding twisted sceptre (throne has posts decorated with Ionic capitals)

    • Feet supported by foot-rest decorated with ovums

    • Slave lighting pyre with 2 torches as he weeps (clear tear drop)

    • Croesus garlanded with laurel

• This myth is also narrated by Herod & Bacchylides (used as comparison to successful athlete)

  • But different portrayal of Croesus than Herodotus

  • Herodotus has Cyrus put him on, but in Bacchylides it is Croesus’ own decision to take own life as here (saved by Zeus!)

• Other side of amphora has Theseus and Peirithoos capturing the Amazon queen, Antiope (contrast of morals?)

  • Precursor to failed Persian invasion, where Amazons invaed Attica and are seen off by Theseus who captures Antiope

  • Defeat of an ‘Eastern’ figure?

Karaburun tomb painting

• c. 470BC, Karaburun, Lycia (tumulus most likely built in life-time)

• Fresco found in tomb (use of colours!)

  • Face in profile but eyes frontal in archaic style (nose is straigh line from forehead)

  • In local Anatolian dress (off-white tunic with bright floral decorations around neckline and large open sleeves, with rich blue cloak hemmed with rid over left shoulder)

  • But beard ends with square (Darius has similar visual portrayals)

  • + diadem and earrings (+ lion-head bracelets)

  • Wearing a Persian jacket over his shoulder

  • But dignatary is reclining in very Greek manner

  • Has a female figure behind him (offeringalabastron) and summons two slaves ahead in Persian style (+ one holding wine jar with griffin handles & the other with fan with ram terminal = Persian)

  • Balances lobed phiale on his fingertips (Xenophon describes seeing Cyrus hold his cup with three fingers = Achaemenid way)

• Other sides:

  • Procession

  • Battle-scene of Persian warrior on horseback succeeding over a Greek hoplite (has large shield, Corinthian helmet and pot. greaves)

  • The other side to the Greek vases!

• Shows local interest as well as a mixing of Aegean and Achaemenid style

çan sarcophagus

• c. 400BC, Cannakale Museum

• Occupant was most likely member of the Persian elite / locla Anatolian dynast (sarcophagus found in tumulus)

  • Shows a man on horseback rearing at a boar that is being attacked by two hunting dogs

  • Odd lack of any background (only one tree) = Macedonian style for tombs

  • Hunting was a sign of royalty

• On short side, see a ruler spearing what many have seen as a Greek

  • Rider has long spear which impales the eye of the ‘Greek’ (spears usually shown brandished behind the head = noval pose)

    • Also noval outfit - long-sleeved pink tunic under cuirass with large shoulder pieces extending to elbow, with vertical projection up behind his helmet

    • Also has leather helmet with flat top, covering back and sides of head

    • Not shown in any other Lycian tombs (but does on greco-persian gem stones

    • The attendant may be Greek mercenary (has long-sleeved white tunic, red trousers and two spears with small shield + sword with concave section = machaira

  • ‘Greek’ wearing long-sleeved dress that comes to knees, that ripples with frequent folds

  • Attempting (but too late) to pull sword from his sheath, just a singular shield (not even using to protect himself from the horse-rider, just accepting his fate as he collapses to the ground before the trees)

  • Others have argued that they are both Mysian, but the difference in dress is meant to convey opposing alliances = Achaemenid and local concerns