unit 2 psych

Signal Detection Theory

Predicts how and when we detect the presence of stimuli amid noise.

Subliminal message

A hidden message that we can't detect but influences our behavior.

Priming

Manipulation into behaving a certain way due to previous stimuli.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Gestalt Psychology

Processes which group smaller units of the perceptual world into larger units.

Binocular cues

Clues about distance based on differing views of two eyes.

Retinal disparity

The difference in images between the right and left eyes.

Convergence

The degree to which two eyes must converge to focus on an object.

Monocular cues

Clues about distance based on the image in either eye.

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines converge in the distance.

Relative Size

Larger objects are perceived as closer if two objects are the same.

Interposition

Nearer objects overlap farther objects.

Texture Gradient

Textures appear coarser when they are closer.

Perceptual constancies

Ability to perceive constant characteristics despite changes in sensory input.

Stroop effect

Demonstrates automatic processing versus conscious visual control.

McGurk effect

What we see can alter what we hear.

Law of pragnanz

Humans prefer experiences and stimuli that are simple and orderly.

Ames room

Distortion of people and objects based on room manipulation.

Stroboscopic motion

Illusion of motion through a series of slightly differing images.

Autokinetic effect

The perception of motion of a stationary point of light in a dark space.

Cognition

Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Metacognition

Thinking about your own thinking.

Executive function

Cognitive skills that help manage behavior and tasks, linked to the prefrontal cortex.

Bias

Shortcuts in thinking that lead to errors in judgment.

Actor-observer bias

Believing our actions are not our fault, while others' actions are their fault.

Confirmation bias

Seeking information that supports one's existing viewpoint.

False memory

Recollection of events that never happened or are distorted from reality.

Halo effect

Judging someone's character based on a single positive trait.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe one knew an outcome all along.

Illusion of control

Belief that one can influence outcomes beyond their control.

In-group bias

Preference for people in one's own group over others.

Magical thinking

Belief that thoughts or actions can influence unrelated events.

Misattribution

Incorrectly assigning the cause of a memory or feeling.

Optimism bias

Belief that things will always turn out positively.

Overgeneralization

Applying lessons from one situation to all similar situations.

Self-serving bias

Attributing success to personal characteristics and failures to external factors.

Cognitive schema

Framework that organizes information about the world into categories.

Gambler’s fallacy

Believing that past random events affect future probabilities.

Sunk cost fallacy

Continuing a venture due to previously invested resources.

Assimilation

Improving existing knowledge with new information.

Accommodation

Modifying existing knowledge when confronted with contradictory information.

Heuristic

Simple thinking strategies for making judgments and solving problems quickly.

Functional fixedness

Rigidity in problem-solving; inability to think outside the box.

Representative heuristic

Assessing likelihood based on how well something fits a stereotype.

Availability heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

Overconfidence

Tendency to be more confident than correct.

Framing

The presentation of an issue affecting decisions and judgments.

Belief bias

Preexisting beliefs can distort logical reasoning.

Belief perseverance

Clinging to initial beliefs despite evidence to the contrary.

Divergent thinking

Generating various solutions and possibilities.

Convergent thinking

Focused on finding a single, familiar solution.

Intuition

Automatic judgment based on experience.

Flashbulb memory (LTM)

Clear but not always accurate memories of emotionally significant events.

Long term memory

Storage of events and facts with limitless capacity.

Prospective memory

Memory for actions or intentions for the future.

Autobiographical memory

Memory for past events that shape one's identity.

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory.

Sensory memory

Initial recording of sensory information.

Short term memory

Activated memory holding a few items briefly, typically 7 +/- 2.

Working memory

Processing of briefly stored thoughts combined with long-term memory.

Spacing effect

Better long-term retention from distributed practice.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Studied memory using nonsense syllables to demonstrate encoding.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list.

Primacy

Recall of the first part of a list.

Recency

Recall of the last part of a list.

Mnemonics

Memory aids to enhance recall.

Structural encoding

Shallow processing that emphasizes a stimulus's physical structure.

Phonemic encoding

Processing based on a word's sound.

Semantic encoding

Processing that emphasizes the meaning of verbal input.

Dual process theory

Memory is enhanced by combining semantic and visual codes.

Chunking

Organizing information into familiar, manageable units to enhance recall.

steps for enriching encoding

choose a familiar location, visualize the space, and recall the information

iconic memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

echoic memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

central executive

part of working memory, main decision making component and manages cognitive tasks

episodic buffer

component of working memory that temporarily stores and integrates info from multiple sources into one story, limited capacity system and controlled by central executive

visuospatial sketchpad

temporarily stores visual and spatial info, allows you to mentally manipulate images

phonological loop

holds autitory info, related to language, allows you to repeat sounds internally

Long-term potentiation

increase in synapses’s firing potential after brief rapid stimulation

Explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences one can know and declare consciously ex. names, dates, events, ideas

implicit memory

remembering independent of consciously recollecting aka procedural memory ex. handles recall of actings, skills

relearning

a memory measure that asses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time

deja vu

cues from a current situation subconciously triggers a past memory

mood-congruent memory

tendency to recall experiences consistent with ones current moods

state dependent memory

what is learned in one state (while high, drunk, or depressed), can be easily remembered when again in the same state

retrograde amnesia

lose existing, previously made memories

anterograde amnesia

cannot make new memories

hermann ebbinghaus

created the forgetting curve

proactive interference

disrupting effect where old info interferes with learning new info

retroactive interferece

disruptive effect of learning new things on old info

motivated forgetting

people unknowingly revise memories

repression

no evidence it exists, but represses unwanted memories/feelings from a conscious mind

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into ones memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing our info to the wrong source

positive transfer

mastery of one task helps learning/performing another

negative transfer

mastery of one task conflicts with learning another task

factor analysis

statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items aka factors on a test

savant syndrome

a person limited in mental ability has a specific exceptional skill

fluid intelligence

reason speedily and abstractly when solving logical problems (decreases with age)