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Signal Detection Theory
Predicts how and when we detect the presence of stimuli amid noise.
Subliminal message
A hidden message that we can't detect but influences our behavior.
Priming
Manipulation into behaving a certain way due to previous stimuli.
Perceptual set
A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
Gestalt Psychology
Processes which group smaller units of the perceptual world into larger units.
Binocular cues
Clues about distance based on differing views of two eyes.
Retinal disparity
The difference in images between the right and left eyes.
Convergence
The degree to which two eyes must converge to focus on an object.
Monocular cues
Clues about distance based on the image in either eye.
Linear Perspective
Parallel lines converge in the distance.
Relative Size
Larger objects are perceived as closer if two objects are the same.
Interposition
Nearer objects overlap farther objects.
Texture Gradient
Textures appear coarser when they are closer.
Perceptual constancies
Ability to perceive constant characteristics despite changes in sensory input.
Stroop effect
Demonstrates automatic processing versus conscious visual control.
McGurk effect
What we see can alter what we hear.
Law of pragnanz
Humans prefer experiences and stimuli that are simple and orderly.
Ames room
Distortion of people and objects based on room manipulation.
Stroboscopic motion
Illusion of motion through a series of slightly differing images.
Autokinetic effect
The perception of motion of a stationary point of light in a dark space.
Cognition
Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
Metacognition
Thinking about your own thinking.
Executive function
Cognitive skills that help manage behavior and tasks, linked to the prefrontal cortex.
Bias
Shortcuts in thinking that lead to errors in judgment.
Actor-observer bias
Believing our actions are not our fault, while others' actions are their fault.
Confirmation bias
Seeking information that supports one's existing viewpoint.
False memory
Recollection of events that never happened or are distorted from reality.
Halo effect
Judging someone's character based on a single positive trait.
Hindsight bias
The tendency to believe one knew an outcome all along.
Illusion of control
Belief that one can influence outcomes beyond their control.
In-group bias
Preference for people in one's own group over others.
Magical thinking
Belief that thoughts or actions can influence unrelated events.
Misattribution
Incorrectly assigning the cause of a memory or feeling.
Optimism bias
Belief that things will always turn out positively.
Overgeneralization
Applying lessons from one situation to all similar situations.
Self-serving bias
Attributing success to personal characteristics and failures to external factors.
Cognitive schema
Framework that organizes information about the world into categories.
Gambler’s fallacy
Believing that past random events affect future probabilities.
Sunk cost fallacy
Continuing a venture due to previously invested resources.
Assimilation
Improving existing knowledge with new information.
Accommodation
Modifying existing knowledge when confronted with contradictory information.
Heuristic
Simple thinking strategies for making judgments and solving problems quickly.
Functional fixedness
Rigidity in problem-solving; inability to think outside the box.
Representative heuristic
Assessing likelihood based on how well something fits a stereotype.
Availability heuristic
Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.
Overconfidence
Tendency to be more confident than correct.
Framing
The presentation of an issue affecting decisions and judgments.
Belief bias
Preexisting beliefs can distort logical reasoning.
Belief perseverance
Clinging to initial beliefs despite evidence to the contrary.
Divergent thinking
Generating various solutions and possibilities.
Convergent thinking
Focused on finding a single, familiar solution.
Intuition
Automatic judgment based on experience.
Flashbulb memory (LTM)
Clear but not always accurate memories of emotionally significant events.
Long term memory
Storage of events and facts with limitless capacity.
Prospective memory
Memory for actions or intentions for the future.
Autobiographical memory
Memory for past events that shape one's identity.
Encoding
The process of getting information into memory.
Sensory memory
Initial recording of sensory information.
Short term memory
Activated memory holding a few items briefly, typically 7 +/- 2.
Working memory
Processing of briefly stored thoughts combined with long-term memory.
Spacing effect
Better long-term retention from distributed practice.
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Studied memory using nonsense syllables to demonstrate encoding.
Serial Position Effect
Tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list.
Primacy
Recall of the first part of a list.
Recency
Recall of the last part of a list.
Mnemonics
Memory aids to enhance recall.
Structural encoding
Shallow processing that emphasizes a stimulus's physical structure.
Phonemic encoding
Processing based on a word's sound.
Semantic encoding
Processing that emphasizes the meaning of verbal input.
Dual process theory
Memory is enhanced by combining semantic and visual codes.
Chunking
Organizing information into familiar, manageable units to enhance recall.
steps for enriching encoding
choose a familiar location, visualize the space, and recall the information
iconic memory
momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
echoic memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
central executive
part of working memory, main decision making component and manages cognitive tasks
episodic buffer
component of working memory that temporarily stores and integrates info from multiple sources into one story, limited capacity system and controlled by central executive
visuospatial sketchpad
temporarily stores visual and spatial info, allows you to mentally manipulate images
phonological loop
holds autitory info, related to language, allows you to repeat sounds internally
Long-term potentiation
increase in synapses’s firing potential after brief rapid stimulation
Explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences one can know and declare consciously ex. names, dates, events, ideas
implicit memory
remembering independent of consciously recollecting aka procedural memory ex. handles recall of actings, skills
relearning
a memory measure that asses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time
deja vu
cues from a current situation subconciously triggers a past memory
mood-congruent memory
tendency to recall experiences consistent with ones current moods
state dependent memory
what is learned in one state (while high, drunk, or depressed), can be easily remembered when again in the same state
retrograde amnesia
lose existing, previously made memories
anterograde amnesia
cannot make new memories
hermann ebbinghaus
created the forgetting curve
proactive interference
disrupting effect where old info interferes with learning new info
retroactive interferece
disruptive effect of learning new things on old info
motivated forgetting
people unknowingly revise memories
repression
no evidence it exists, but represses unwanted memories/feelings from a conscious mind
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into ones memory of an event
source amnesia
attributing our info to the wrong source
positive transfer
mastery of one task helps learning/performing another
negative transfer
mastery of one task conflicts with learning another task
factor analysis
statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items aka factors on a test
savant syndrome
a person limited in mental ability has a specific exceptional skill
fluid intelligence
reason speedily and abstractly when solving logical problems (decreases with age)
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