unit 2 psych

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108 Terms

1

Signal Detection Theory

Predicts how and when we detect the presence of stimuli amid noise.

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2

Subliminal message

A hidden message that we can't detect but influences our behavior.

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3

Priming

Manipulation into behaving a certain way due to previous stimuli.

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4

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

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5

Gestalt Psychology

Processes which group smaller units of the perceptual world into larger units.

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6

Binocular cues

Clues about distance based on differing views of two eyes.

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7

Retinal disparity

The difference in images between the right and left eyes.

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8

Convergence

The degree to which two eyes must converge to focus on an object.

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9

Monocular cues

Clues about distance based on the image in either eye.

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10

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines converge in the distance.

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11

Relative Size

Larger objects are perceived as closer if two objects are the same.

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12

Interposition

Nearer objects overlap farther objects.

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13

Texture Gradient

Textures appear coarser when they are closer.

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14

Perceptual constancies

Ability to perceive constant characteristics despite changes in sensory input.

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15

Stroop effect

Demonstrates automatic processing versus conscious visual control.

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16

McGurk effect

What we see can alter what we hear.

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17

Law of pragnanz

Humans prefer experiences and stimuli that are simple and orderly.

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18

Ames room

Distortion of people and objects based on room manipulation.

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19

Stroboscopic motion

Illusion of motion through a series of slightly differing images.

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20

Autokinetic effect

The perception of motion of a stationary point of light in a dark space.

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21

Cognition

Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

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22

Metacognition

Thinking about your own thinking.

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23

Executive function

Cognitive skills that help manage behavior and tasks, linked to the prefrontal cortex.

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24

Bias

Shortcuts in thinking that lead to errors in judgment.

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25

Actor-observer bias

Believing our actions are not our fault, while others' actions are their fault.

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26

Confirmation bias

Seeking information that supports one's existing viewpoint.

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27

False memory

Recollection of events that never happened or are distorted from reality.

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28

Halo effect

Judging someone's character based on a single positive trait.

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29

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe one knew an outcome all along.

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30

Illusion of control

Belief that one can influence outcomes beyond their control.

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31

In-group bias

Preference for people in one's own group over others.

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32

Magical thinking

Belief that thoughts or actions can influence unrelated events.

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33

Misattribution

Incorrectly assigning the cause of a memory or feeling.

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34

Optimism bias

Belief that things will always turn out positively.

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35

Overgeneralization

Applying lessons from one situation to all similar situations.

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36

Self-serving bias

Attributing success to personal characteristics and failures to external factors.

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37

Cognitive schema

Framework that organizes information about the world into categories.

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38

Gambler’s fallacy

Believing that past random events affect future probabilities.

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39

Sunk cost fallacy

Continuing a venture due to previously invested resources.

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40

Assimilation

Improving existing knowledge with new information.

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41

Accommodation

Modifying existing knowledge when confronted with contradictory information.

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42

Heuristic

Simple thinking strategies for making judgments and solving problems quickly.

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43

Functional fixedness

Rigidity in problem-solving; inability to think outside the box.

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44

Representative heuristic

Assessing likelihood based on how well something fits a stereotype.

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45

Availability heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

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46

Overconfidence

Tendency to be more confident than correct.

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47

Framing

The presentation of an issue affecting decisions and judgments.

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48

Belief bias

Preexisting beliefs can distort logical reasoning.

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49

Belief perseverance

Clinging to initial beliefs despite evidence to the contrary.

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50

Divergent thinking

Generating various solutions and possibilities.

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51

Convergent thinking

Focused on finding a single, familiar solution.

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52

Intuition

Automatic judgment based on experience.

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53

Flashbulb memory (LTM)

Clear but not always accurate memories of emotionally significant events.

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54

Long term memory

Storage of events and facts with limitless capacity.

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55

Prospective memory

Memory for actions or intentions for the future.

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56

Autobiographical memory

Memory for past events that shape one's identity.

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57

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory.

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58

Sensory memory

Initial recording of sensory information.

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59

Short term memory

Activated memory holding a few items briefly, typically 7 +/- 2.

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60

Working memory

Processing of briefly stored thoughts combined with long-term memory.

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61

Spacing effect

Better long-term retention from distributed practice.

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62

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Studied memory using nonsense syllables to demonstrate encoding.

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63

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list.

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64

Primacy

Recall of the first part of a list.

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65

Recency

Recall of the last part of a list.

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66

Mnemonics

Memory aids to enhance recall.

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67

Structural encoding

Shallow processing that emphasizes a stimulus's physical structure.

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68

Phonemic encoding

Processing based on a word's sound.

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69

Semantic encoding

Processing that emphasizes the meaning of verbal input.

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70

Dual process theory

Memory is enhanced by combining semantic and visual codes.

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71

Chunking

Organizing information into familiar, manageable units to enhance recall.

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72
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73

steps for enriching encoding

choose a familiar location, visualize the space, and recall the information

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74

iconic memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

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75

echoic memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

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76

central executive

part of working memory, main decision making component and manages cognitive tasks

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77

episodic buffer

component of working memory that temporarily stores and integrates info from multiple sources into one story, limited capacity system and controlled by central executive

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78

visuospatial sketchpad

temporarily stores visual and spatial info, allows you to mentally manipulate images

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79

phonological loop

holds autitory info, related to language, allows you to repeat sounds internally

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80

Long-term potentiation

increase in synapses’s firing potential after brief rapid stimulation

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81

Explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences one can know and declare consciously ex. names, dates, events, ideas

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82

implicit memory

remembering independent of consciously recollecting aka procedural memory ex. handles recall of actings, skills

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83

relearning

a memory measure that asses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time

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84

deja vu

cues from a current situation subconciously triggers a past memory

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85

mood-congruent memory

tendency to recall experiences consistent with ones current moods

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86

state dependent memory

what is learned in one state (while high, drunk, or depressed), can be easily remembered when again in the same state

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87

retrograde amnesia

lose existing, previously made memories

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88

anterograde amnesia

cannot make new memories

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89

hermann ebbinghaus

created the forgetting curve

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90

proactive interference

disrupting effect where old info interferes with learning new info

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91

retroactive interferece

disruptive effect of learning new things on old info

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92

motivated forgetting

people unknowingly revise memories

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93

repression

no evidence it exists, but represses unwanted memories/feelings from a conscious mind

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94

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into ones memory of an event

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95

source amnesia

attributing our info to the wrong source

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96

positive transfer

mastery of one task helps learning/performing another

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97

negative transfer

mastery of one task conflicts with learning another task

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98

factor analysis

statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items aka factors on a test

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99

savant syndrome

a person limited in mental ability has a specific exceptional skill

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100

fluid intelligence

reason speedily and abstractly when solving logical problems (decreases with age)

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