ARKY201 - Midterm 2

The Circuit of Archaeological Research

1. Formulation of a plan, have to have a proposal
2. Logistics
3. Survey
4. Excavation
5. Conservation
6. Analysis
7. Publication

Reconnaisance Survey

A preliminary examination of a survey area to identify major sites, to assess potential and to establish tentative site distributions.

Intensive Survey

A systematic, detailed field survey that covers an entire area; may include subsurface testing

non-probabilistic sampling

Targeting specific areas by the excavator in a non-random manner. Often used when the archaeologist is most interested in already visible or suspected sites. Results cannot be extrapolated beyond the area or used to generalize about non-sampled contexts within the study area.

probabilistic sampling

Uses random sampling techniques to mathematically relate small samples data to larger study areas by studying a representative sample of the whole area. Makes generalizations derived from the sample for the entire area.

Approaches to ground survey

methods: quadrants, transects, opportunistic sampling

Geographic Information System (GIS)

-appeared during the 1980s
-revolutionized the storage and display of cartographic data, including archaeological sites
-uses GPS data to render points, lines and polygons in 3D space
-Two types: total station and base station + handheld receiver.

simple random sampling

-simplest form of probabilisitic sampling
-numbers are assigned to a grid drawn over a survey area, and sampling units are selected completely on a random basis
-the spacing between sampling areas is often uneven
-drawback: survey is uneven because it's random and you end up missing an important site

stratified random sampling

-used when the survey area is not geographically uniform
-the broader sample area is divide in ways that reflect observed variation within the area (ecological zones, activity areas, artifact classes)
-each category is designated an amount of sample units proportional to it's area
-within each category/division, the position of the sample units is determined by random sampling
-drawback: the categories you choose have to be good

systematic sampling

-choose one unit at random and then select others at equal intervals from the first one
-sample units are evenly distributed
-useful for surface collection where artifacts are visible on the ground surface
-avoids areas of low sample concentration
-it may oversample (or miss every site) if Arky material also falls at intervals

Systematic Unaligned Sampling

-combines characteristics of simple random sampling and systematic sampling into a single strategy
-divides sample universe into small regularly spaced divisions
-sample units are randomly placed within each of the divisions

Archaeological Survey

the systematic attempt to locate, identity and record the distribution of archaeological sites on the ground and in relation to their natural environment

Site Assessment

the evaluation of each site's archaeological significance. considers site location and evaluates data from controlled surface collections and, in some cases, information from subsurface detection using electron and limited subsurface testing.

Stonehenge

-located in the salisbury plain, england
-was used during the neolitihic and Bronze Age (3000 BC)
-one of the best known Arky sites in europe
-there are hundreds of burial mounds, pits, ritual shrines

New Stonehenge Discoveries

A broken water pipe led to the discovery of new monuments and features. A new extensive survey was carried out which corrected old maps, found new sites and discoveries and found the durrington walls (c-shaped super henges 2 miles away)

Google Earth

a remote sensing method that is easily accessible and efficient

Aerial photography

-remote sensing method
-can photograph shadow marks, crop marks, soil marks and provide infrared imagery

Satellite Sensor Imagery

-remote sensing method
-non photographic

aircraft borne sensor imagery

-remote sensing method
-non photographic
-SLAR (sideways looking airborne radar
-LiDAR

Subsurface sampling

remote sensing method that involves sampling below the surface level

Imaging methods used at Stonehenge

-crop marks
-aerial photography
-infrared photography
-LiDAR
-ground penetrating

LANSAT 7

-launched in 1999
-single nadir pointing instrument
-8 bands
-Band 6 is thermal infrared
-Band 8 is panchromatic
-sun synchronous
-Orbits 705 km above the earth, with a swath width of 185 km
-Revisits the same area every 16 days, generating 250 images per day
-Drawback: The ETM + scan line corrector failed on may 31st, 2003, resulting in image with significant geometric error. There's a black line through every image after 2003

Infrared satellite imaging

-used at stonehenge
-most satellites have multiple bands that capture different wavelengths
-visual, infrared and multispectral
-computer programs can create false color images of particular bands
-hidden features may become visible
-changes in vegetation, crop marks

LIDAR

-used at stonehenge
-Light detection and Ranging
-pulsing laser (usually mounted on an aircraft)
-measures distance based on the time it takes for a pulse of light to reach the target and return
-measures the height of the ground surface and all features
-classification of ground cover
-highly accurate DSM (digital surface model) maps of all surface features

Ground Penetrating Radar

-allows archaeologists to locate buried artifacts
-consists of a transmitter, receiver and control unit
-quick, relatively cheap and only disturbs terrain you're walking on
radar pulses are reflected at different rates depending on the density of sub surface features
-data is collected on a grid
-creates a 3D subsurface map

Magnetic Survey

-Measures near surface magnetic fields
-Gradiometry:
-axial gradiometer: 2 magnetometers placed one above the other
-planar gradiometer: 2 magnetometers placed next to each other
-Data collected on a grid (usually on foot)
-Burned tree roots, highways, any motors \= can interfere with the signal
-Used at Stonehenge

Surface Collection

-gathers representative samples of artifacts from the surface of the site
-works best in areas of low vegetation (grassy field, plowed farm field) and low soil deposition

The "dog leash" technique

pin in ground with a tape measure, easy and fast to get an exact area every time, pick up everything in that radius

Square Unit Technique

-measures the site by square unit
-mathematically more easy to determine surface area, takes longer

shovel test pits

-shallow holes of a proscribed size and depth are made with a shovel

auger/core borer

-hand-operated or power tool
-used to bore through subsurface deposits to find the depth and consistency of archaeological deposit
-works best in softer soils, e.g. sand or silt or lake beds

Total excavation

-rare these days, very expensive
-total excavation has the advantage of being comprehensive but is undesirable because it leaves none of the site intact for excavation at a later date with, perhaps, more advanced techniques

vertical trenches

-used on mounds/temples, deep deposits and CRM projects
-reveals the full sequence of occupation/construction
-strategically placed to reveal the maximum amount of information
-can cause erosion if not backfilled properly

Vertical Testing

-designed to penetrate to the lower strata of a site to establish the extent of archaeological deposits
-used to establish stratigraphic sequences
-chronology of a site or region
-obtaining artifact samples from a wide range of contexts
-used where horizontal excavation might cause future problems
-1x1, 2x2, 3x3, etc.
-always try to excavate until bedrock or sterile soil
-"telephone booths"

natural levels in vertical space

-uses visible changes in matrix appearance and texture to determine levels

artificial levels in vertical space

-uses arbitrary depths to subdivide the vertical matrix
-5 cm, 10 cm, 15 cm, etc
-at the end of each level: photograph, draw, bag and tag

Horizontal Excavation

-carried out on a much larger scale than vertical
-total excavation of small area, structures, city blocks
-uncovers wide areas to recover building plans or the layout of large areas
-establishes a grid over a selected large area of the site
-uses the grid to establish horizontal spatial controls through the excavation of the individual units within the grid

Cartesian Coordinate System

two or three-dimensional grid based on intersecting, perpendicular incremented lines or planes

Datum

-something to use as a basis for measuring; a reference point for a grid or a map

site datum

-a stable or permanent feature established as an arbitrary reference point from which the entire site is measured and recorded

grid unit

-a specific square or rectangular area on the cartesian coordinate system, designated by the coordinate in one corner (often the SW corner)

grid with baulks

-excavated portion of each unit
-established along all grid lines
-baulks serve as footpaths for excavators
-preserve a vertical record of the stratigraphy
-works best with larger grid squares

checkerboard patterns

-excavate every other unit or every other row
-works best with smaller grid squares

artifact documentation

-all deposits must be recorded in 3 dimensions
-plans and profiles
-levels
-point plotting of special finds

consolidation and restoration

-deposits without architecture are backfilled with dirt from the excavation
-standing architecture may be consolidated and reconstructed
-replacement of collapsing masonry blocks
-use of natural materials and/or to prevent further collapse

Special Excavation issues

-occasionally archaeologists face unexpected and exciting challenges that require special excavation techniques
-fragile objects
-burials
-structures and pits
-usually done with wooden implements, wooden skewers (bone scratches easily with shovel)

washing certain artifacts

-you do this for lithics and ceramics
-NOT metal, fragile materials, anything that can be analyzed for residues
-wash metal with acid

Artifact Conservation

-stabilize the fragile objects
-reconstruct fragile objects

after excavation steps

1. wash certain artifacts
2. conservation
3. classification

why classify artifacts?

to:
-Organizing Data into manageable units
-Describing types
-Identifying relationships between types
-Studying assemblage variability in the archaeological record

what can we learn from categorizing artifacts?

-Site chronology
-Exchange patterns
-Ancient technologies
-Class differences
-Expressions of political power
-Religious -beliefs/practices
-Diet and health
-Gendered behaviours

Taxonomy

the name given to the system of classifying concepts, materials, objects and phenomena used in many sciences, including arky

Typology

-a system of classification based on the construction of types
-a type is a grouping of artifacts based on form, chronology, function and style
-typology is a search for patterns among either objects or the variables that define those objects

attributes

A minimal characteristic of an artifact such that it cannot be further subdivided; attributes commonly studied include aspects of form, style, decoration, colour, manufacturing tech and raw material.

formal attributes

attributes defined by features such as the shape of the artifacts, its measurable dimensions and its components

stylistic attributes

attributes defined by the surface characteristics of artifacts - colour, texture, decoration - leading to stylistic typologies
-surface treatment
-plastic decoration

technological attributes

-attributes consisting of raw material characteristics including overall shape, the shape of parts and measurable dimensions - leading to form typologies.
--paste color/texture
-temper (non-plastic inclusions)
-production techniques (wheel, coil method, mold-made, slab)
-firing characteristics/temperature
-elemental composition of the clay

Technology

The set of techniques and the body of the information that provide ways to convert raw materials into tools, to procure and process food, to construct and locate food and so on. Technology allows humans to exploit their environment.

technological style

derives from deliberate choices made by producers in order to achieve specific mechanical and visual properties.

direct percussion

striking a core directly with a hammerstone or antler billet or striking the core against fixed stone or anvil.

indirect percussion

striking a punch, usually made of wood or bone, placed against a core.

pressure flaking

applying pressure against a core with a punch, usually made of wood or bone, often used for final shaping, or to create prismatic blades.

retouch or marginal retouch

minimal flaking along the edge of a piece, generally used for sharpening or re sharpening

ceramic testing methods: determining types of minerals (types of clay)

-petrographic analysis
-x-ray diffraction (XRD)
-scanning electron microscopy (often used with energy dispersive x ray spectroscopy SEM-EDS)

ceramic testing methods: determining amount and type of elements -\> compositional analysis

-x-ray fluorescence (XRF)
-instrumental neutron activation analysis (i)NAA
-scanning electron microscopy (texture) -energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (mineral detection)
-mass spectrometry

pottery found in roman world

-Fine wares (serving and tableware)
-Coarse Wares (cooking and storage
-Transportation (amphorae)
-Other household goods
-figurines
-oil lamps
-Architectural Ceramics:
-roof tiles
-bricks
-ceramic pipes

Roman ceramic production methods

-modeling/coil
-Mold
-Potter's wheel

roman kilns: la graufesenque

-The kilns could hold up to 40,000 items
-Could reach the temperature of 1000c
-Documented with lists of kiln-loads
-potters names
-numbers of pots

Terra Sigillata

-"Clay with little images"
-Red slipped, high quality tablewares
-mostly dishes, bowls and serving vessels
-Real terra sigillata was produced at arezzo, italy
-"Gaulish samian ware" (southern gallic sigillata) was exported in bulk from production workshop centers in southern Gaul.
-Decorated outer surfaces were made with pottery moulds
-also used stamps, punches, and free-hand stylus

amphorae

-were ceramic shipping containers for valuable liquids - wine, olive oil and garum (fish sauce)
-Each vessel was painted or stamped with an inscription: the type of product, weight, production area, shipment date, and amount of import duty
-Produced and traded all over the roman empire

Monte Testaccio, Rome

-Artificial hill made up of an estimated 53 million sherds of broken amphorae
1 km circumference, 35 m high, engineered with terraces
-Made from a single type of amphorae used to ship olive oil
-residues turned rancid - could not be reused
-Located near a shipping port on the tiber river
-Imported mostly from spain, some from north africa
-for distribution by state officials

oil lamps in Pompeii

-Most commonly made out of ceramic (some were metal)
-Filled with olive oil or other vegetable oils
-Most were made using moulds, both for the lamp itself and for the circular discus design
-Stamped with the names of procurers or workshops

tegula

large, square tile with upturned edges

imbrex

half cylinder roof tile

the via de nocera workshop

-arguably the best preserved pottery production facility in the roman world
-5 rooms, 2 kilns
-kiln 1 contained 16 intact and 8 fragmentary bivalve molds for the production of oil lamps
-kiln held 123 fritillus ceramic dice cups

the via superior workshop

-5 rooms 2 kilns
-they made cooking vessels
-possibly included 382 identical cooking vessels

petrographic analysis

*(Detailed examination of clays and the type and density of non-plastic inclusions (temper)
*Different minerals reflect and refract different types of light
-different crystal forms
-reflect/refract different colours
-voids may indicate organic temper
-you can see face decoration in cross section

Xray Diffraction

-Used to identify different crystalline structures (clays, tempers) in ceramics
-The sample is loaded into an XRD and bombarded with x rays with from how many different angles
-The x-rays reflect off the crystalline structure into specific directions like a "fingerprint"
-Different crystals reflect the x rays at specific angles and intensities
-Non crystalline materials like glass and obsidian and high fired ceramic do not produce sharp peaks

XRD at Pompeii and Herculaneum

-Most of the minerals identified in the samples were volcanic materials
-Neo-formed gehlenite indicates that some of the pottery was fired at 950 degrees c which causes calcite to react chemically with the clay
-Use of at least 2 different local clay sources

metal seriation

distinctive alloy colors, object forms, gliding techniques, decorative techniques

Metallography

-Thin sections from metal objects slags
-Thin sections of metallurgical ceramics
-Very similar to to petrographic analysis of ceramics

metallic testing methods: amount and type of elements

-x ray fluorescence XRF
-instrumental neutron activation analysis INAA
-scanning electron microscopy energy dispersive x ray spectroscopy SEM EDS

Four types of metallurgy

1. mining
2. smelting
3. refining/re-melting
4. forging/shaping

mining

-ore extraction
-ore crushing: preparation (beneficiation)

smelting

-Reduction of mineral ore to metal alloy through a furnace
-Crucibles used to hold the ore fragments within the furnace
-Waste materials from smelting include slag

refining/re-melting

-copper, silver or tin alloys
-Casting metal into objects
-Annealing: reheating and allowing it to cool slowly, to harden it and remove internal stresses
-hot/cold hammering: shapes and sharpens the edge
-Crucibles and blowpipes

forging/shaping

-Heating
-Hammering (usually hot hammering)
-Quenching (in water)

environment

-the ecology
-the air, water, minerals, organisms and all other external factors surrounding and affecting a given organism at any time

landscape

-humans create these
-Places on the landscape are laden with meaning
-Landscape analysis is a form of historical ecology, where changing landscapes over long time periods serve cultural records.

long term climate change

-occur on a millenial scale
-have long term effects on human existence

short term climate change

-floods
-droughts
-el nino/la nina cycles
-volcanic eruptions

really short term climate

-weather

Geoarchaeology

-the study of archaeology using the methods and concepts of the earth sciences

Sedimentology

-paleosols (a stratum or soil horizon that was formed as a soil in a past geological period)
-identify periods of drying and increased soil deposition

Site Formation Processes

-stratigraphy
-distinguish human
-caused phenomena from natural features

methods for studying past climates

-Oxygen Isotope Analysis:
-reconstruct past global temperatures
-use a mass spectrometer
-Carbon isotope analysis:
-reconstruct diet
-Zooarchaeology (faunal analysis)
-Palynology (pollen analysis)
-Reconstruct past animal/plant life diet, ecology, domestication, agriculture, hunting

the westward norse expansion

-Viking raids were first documented in AD 793
-spurred by the intense rivalry between viking chieftains for prestige items, redistributed to followers.
-Colonization of iceland in the 10th century
-medieval icelandic sagas
-Colonization of greenland by settlers from iceland around AD 985
-Colonization of l'anse aux meadows (in newfoundland) around AD 990-1000

norse colonies in Greenland

-Settled around AD 985 by erik the red
-Western settlement and eastern settlement
-peak population of up to 3000
-By the 12th century, norse kings were converted to christianity
-over 20 churches were built in western and eastern settlements
-bishops held power and controlled trade

L'Anse aux Meadows

-Located in newfoundland at the tip of the great northern peninsula
-First and only documented viking settlement in north america
-Norse expedition sailed from greenland around AD 1000
-led by leif eriksson, son of erik the red
-It was discovered in 1960 by norwegian archaeologists and explorers
-Found a small encampment of 8 timber sod buildings
-icelandic style buildings
-it was a temporary colony (ad 990-1050)
-large residences with multiple rooms
-3 small buildings - workshops or lower status crews/slaves
-had iron smithy with forge and iron slag
-had a carpentry workshop used for boat repair

mass spectrometry - isotope analysis

Tells you the relative amounts of different isotopes:
-Oxygen (climate)
-Carbon (diet, radiocarbon dating)
-Nitrogen (diet)
-Strontium (migration, groundwater)