18: Relations with Indigenous People

Challenges in Egypt

In Egypt, there was a countrywide revolution by Egyptians and Sudanese against the British occupation in 1919, after the British exiled the nationalist leader Saad Zaghloul and other members of his party. There was widespread civil disobedience, rioting, demonstrations and strikes encompassing all classes of society. There were attacks on military bases, civilian facilities and personnel, in which Egyptian villages were burnt and railways destroyed. At least 800 Egyptians were killed and 1600 wounded. Following the 'Milner report', Egypt was granted independent in 1922, but relations remained strained. Britain refused to recognise full Egyptian sovereignty over Sudan, or to withdraw all its forces.Even after a further treaty in 1936, Britain retained troops in the Suez area.

Challenges in Palestine

There were also tensions in Palestine and these escalated in the 1930s as more Jews, fleeing Nazism, entered the country. Arab protest mounted and the inter-racial violence increased as the Jews formed the Haganah (an underground Jewish militia in Palestine 1920-48 that became the national army of Israel after the partition of Palestine in 1948), to protect themselves. More militant Jewish nationalist formed secret units e.g. the Stern Gang (a militant Zionist terrorist organisation founded in 1940 by Avram Stern) which wage open war on both the British and the Arabs. By 1945 there was open conflict between the two communities that the British were unable to control. Britain announced their departure in 1947, leaving the issue to the UN

Challenges in Ireland

Before the war, the British government was already facing the prospect of civil war in Ireland where a religious divide between the Protestant and the Catholic was threatening to wreck the 1912/13 Home Rule Bill granting Irish independence. In March 1914, British soldiers at Curragh mutinied, refusing to take action to enforce Home Rule on the hostile north. Conflict occurred as both sides armed themselves: the 'Ulster Volunteers' verses the 'National Volunteers' in the south. There were three deaths and many casualties in July 1914 and Home Rule had to be suspended for the duration of the war. Protest escalated during the war and a southern pro-independence organisation, Sinn Fein organised an unsuccessful rising in Dublin during Easter 1916.

Post WW1 Ireland

In 1919, the frustrations caused by the delays to Irish Home Rule led members of Sinn Fein, who won a majority of the Irish seats at Westminster in 1918 general election, to establish an Irish assembly in Dublin. They declared an Irish Republic and their Irish Republican Army (IRA) began a guerrilla war against the British, who reinforced the Royal Irish Constabulary with the 'Blank and Tans' (temporary policemen) supporting them. The conflict ended with the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty which created the Irish Free State as a self-governing Dominion within the British Empire. The 6 northern counties promptly used their legal rights to 'opt out'. Eamon de Valera, one of the principle Irish leaders, refused to accept the treaty - partly because the Irish Free State was not a republic and partly because it involved splitting the country. This brought further civil war which ended in 1923 with the defeat of Valera and the republicans.

Further Developments in Ireland

Southern Ireland was subsequently treated as a Dominion, gaining equality of status in the 1931 Statute of Westminster. Valera still continued his protest however. He refused to attend the Imperial Conference of 1937 and drew u a new constitution which effectively turned Ireland into a republic - Eire. Eire adopted a position of neutralist in the Second World War and in 1948 separated itself entirely from the rest of Britain in the Republic of Ireland Act. The Irish showed that British imperialism could be successfully challenged

Difficulties in developing African nationalism

There was tribal politics; no defined national identity. There were fewer educated elites (to lead nationalist groups) - indigenous people were not represented in the civil service. There was a less educated population (to engage). There was a less urban population (poorer communication) - fewer common grievances. There was less political representation (esp. in colonies with white settlers) - which meant there was no clear forum for grievances. There was widespread collaboration of chiefs and local rulers (who liked the status quo). British policies undermined nationalism (esp. Trusteeship) - which made the local population believe the Brit. might improve things. Limited economic development (made the creation of modern nation state less viable)

National Congress of West Africa

A group of political activists from Nigeria, Gambia, Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast formed in 1919. It was started to promote political representation of Africans which was had been limited. It was supported by the swelling numbers of the black middle-class lawyers, teachers, doctors, many of whom were European educated. It's demands for greater representation were initially ignored. Some concessions were granted in the 1920s - but the nationalists were outnumbered by appointed (rather than elected) African chiefs from the interior of the colonies on the legislative councils

Growth of nationalism

Grew with the spread of education. Colonial administrators tried to win support by increasing employment opportunities causing a new, young and even more radical group of nationalist leaders to emerge in the 1930s

West African Students' Union

WASU was founded in 1925. It helped to bring together students from various West African countries studying in London. It was the key political, social and cultural organisation for West Africans in Britain. It campaigned against racism in Britain (colour bar) and against colonialism and for independence in West Africa. It produced a journal and founded four hostels in London to provide lodgings for West African students. It inspired greater radicalism among its members and acted as a training ground for future West African politicians. Members included Nnamdi Azikiwe and Kwame Nkrumah - both who would emerge as significant post-war nationalists' figures. A major influence on the anti-colonial movements in Nigeria, the Gold Coast. 1929 - stopped plans for a African village exhibition in Newcastle

WW2 on W Africa

It brought faster economic development to the West African colonies because Britain relied even more on its raw materials for the war effort as it had been cut off from its colonies in Asia thanks to the Japanese occupation

Pan African Congress

In 1945, a Pan African Congress was convened in Manchester which called for the 'autonomy and independence' of black Africa. It was an important step towards the end of imperial powers in Africa

Harry Thuku

Born into an influential Kikuyu family and missionary educated. Joined the Kikyru Association but left, disillusioned with the organisation's reluctance to use direct and illegal methods to resist British rule. Helped form the East African Association in 1921. Imprisoned in 1922 for being involved in a protest which turned violent. Released in 1931. 1932 became president of the Kikuyu Central Association

Young Kikuyu

Non-violent organisation set up to recover Kikuyu lands that were lost when Kenya became a Crown Colony in 1920

East African Association

A larger and more representative group that went across tribal lines. Founded in 1921 and tried to push for more representation and opposed white rule over East Africa. Gradually broadened into a campaign for African rights and representation as the East African Association

WW2 in Kenya

There was more reliance on trade with Kenya in the war years - led to urbanisation and opportunity to oppose British rule

KASU

Kenya African Study Union inspired by movements in West Africa. Educated people in an urban environment. It was renamed and out of it came a political party that would lead Kenya to independence

Support for INC after WW1

Many Indians had volunteered in the War in the assumption that they would be granted independence afterwards. They felt Britain owed them something. The expatriate Indian population, particularly in the USA, Canada and Germany, headed by the Ghadar Party, tried to encourage uprisings in India, with Irish Republican, German and Turkish help. Gandhi was trying to recruit the masses to his campaign so they gained more support from the ryots. Britain had ignored the idea of self rule in the government of India act in 1919 which angered many

The Russian Revolution 1917

The overthrow of a powerful hierarchy which had ruled over a subrogated majority for a long time. The Russian Empire collapsed. It encouraged that politically it was possible to overthrow the British.

Collapse of Ottoman Empire

Another empire that had existed since the 16th century that was overthrown by Muslims - encouraged the Indians nationalists that their goal was possible.

Creation of new European Nation States

The creation of new European nation states - encouraged and angered the Indian nationalists. Britain is happy to create new states in Europe but at the same time denying the Indians self-rule because the Europeans were white so were 'fit to rule' their own affairs.

The Anglo-Irish Treaty 1921

Britain conceding something to nationalism. A nationalist group had extracted a major concession from Britain as a direct result of the nationalist's actions. More significant because it was a direct action of the British, rather than the Russians and the Ottomans.

Amritsar Massacre

The 1919 Government of Indian act failed to satisfy nationalist demands which provoked further protest. These uprisings led to recommendations for the 1919 Rowlatt Acts which allowed political cased to be tried without juries and provided for the internment of suspects without trial. Conflict came to a head in the 1919 Amritsar (or Jallianwallah Bagh) massacre in the Punjab, after rioting had bought British deaths and the near breakdown of civil order in the region. British army troops, commended by Reginald Dyer, fire upon a crowd who had gathered to protest against the arrest of 2 nationalist leaders as well as Sikh pilgrims who had gathered in the public gardens of Jallianwallah Bagh, adjacent to a sacred site in order to celebrate the Sikh New Year. The British government claimed that 379 were killed and 1200 wounded but the Indian National Congress claimed that 1000 died and over 1500 were wounded. The massacre provoked a huge reaction. Indian Congress politicians claimed that it showed that Britain no longer possessed any moral authority to rule. It also galvanised Gandhi's non-co-operation movement 1920-22

Chauri Chaura Incident 1922

In the Gorakhpur district of the United Province. Violence erupted among a large group of protestors participating in the Non-Cooperation Movement and the police opened fire. The demonstrators attacked and set fire to a police station, and 3 civilians and 23 policemen were killed. The Indian National Congress called for an end to the Non-Cooperation movement on the national level as a direct result of the incident

Jawaharlal Nehru

He was also a layer who became a close ally and friend to Gandhi despite their different visions. He was the westernised son of a wealthy Brahmin lawyer who joined the Congress in 1919. He was a committed socialist who sought modernisation and industrialisation of India through state economic planning He was elected as president of the INC in 1928 and imprisoned during the anti-salt tax campaign but was reelected as president in 1936. He supported Britain in 1939 but reluctantly gave support to Gandhi's 1942 'Quit India' movement and was consequently imprisoned until 1945. He became president in 1948 and India's first independent Prime Minister

B.R. Ambedkar

Born to untouchable but went to British school. Wanted to industrialise, he wrote Indian constitution asking for untouchable parliament. Gandhi went on hunger strike to prevent it

Sabhas Chandra Bose

He was Nehru's rival for the leadership of the Congress party in the 1930s. He wanted the Congress to adopt a more militant line. He was president of the Congress between 1938-39. He was placed under house arrest but escaped and fled to Germany. In 1939, he allied himself with Britain's enemies, Germany and Japan. He formed the Indian National Army in 1942, intending to lead the forced to free India

All Indain Muslim League

Founded in 1906 and worked in co-operation with the Congress. However, under Muhammad Ali Jinnah's leadership it grew more vociferous in its representation of India's substantial Muslim minority. He disagreed with Gandhi's tactics and campaigned for the establishment of safeguards for Muslims in the movement for independence

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

He was a prominent member of the Congress Party and an active member of the Muslim League which he led from 1913. Initially he favoured Hindu-Muslim political co-operation, but he resigned from the Congress Party in 1920, disagreeing with the policy of non-violent protest . By 1940 he believed there should be a separate Muslim state. He was appointed the first Governor-General of Pakistan in 1947 following his efforts to create it

Idea for Pakistan

In 1930, Dr Muhammad Iqbal, a European-educated Muslim poet and philosopher from the Punjab, suggested that a Muslim nation-state might be created from the North West Indian states of Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan. Muslim nationalist Choudry Rahmat Ali proposed the name 'Pakistan' in 1933. The league was not initially united in its desire for partition and Jinnah rejected the idea until 1940

Communist Party of India

The British Colonial Authorities had banned all communist activity which made the task of building a united arty very difficult. There were three conspiracy trials against the communist movement in the early 20s. They were charged of seeking to 'deprive the King Emperor of his sovereignty of British India, by complete separation of India from imperialist Britain by a violent revolution'. The League Against Gandhism was a political organisation in Calcutta, founded by the underground Communist Party of India in the early 1930s. When Britain and the Soviet Union became allies against Germany in 1941 the CPI was legalised. It strengthened their control over the All India Trade Union Congress. Communists were politically concerned for their opposition to Quit India

'Colonial identity'

Identity is an intangible thing so it is difficult to measure and assess whether one existed or now. The term is subjective so it may mean different things to different people. The term suggests that, among peoples who had been subject to British imperial rule there emerged a clear sense of being 'a colonial'

Aims of British colonisers

They were (supposedly) on a 'civilising mission' to try to improve and develop the areas of the empire, both for their benefit and the benefit of the indigenous people. British ideals - religious, cultural and social - and British economic demands were forced upon the indigenous people to varying degrees

Responses to British Rule

Some collaborated with British rule in the hope of benefiting from new opportunities e.g. Indian princes/sepoys, African chiefs. The way colonial peoples reacted to British rule was largely dictated by the way they have been treated. People in areas that had enjoyed economic growth and prosperity tended to see the British positively whereas those who associated rule with hardships and deprivation did not. Wanted to preserve the status quo because it would mean they retained their power - not everyone agreed with the nationalists (and they didn't even agree with each other)

Undermining their rule

It was the British colonisers keenness to extend Western education and develop economies which helped to create the national consciousness that was a challenge to the concept of empire. The way Britain acted sometimes undermined their right to rule e.g. the Amritsar Massacre and the Denswari incident

Colonial Loyalty

There was a sense of loyalty and often pride among those who were in the empire. There was a strong attachment to British institutions and to the Crown between 1914-47 as evidenced by the support given to Britain in the World Wars. The coronation of George VI in 1937 was widely celebrated and covered by 23 hours of continuous broadcasting in Canada. Empire Day and other festivals brought people out onto the streets. Millions tuned in to the monarch's Christmas message. Even many nationalist leaders tempered their political demands with expressions to loyalty to the Crown