EESA10 Final Exam

What defines climate?

Trends in weather patterns over an extended period of time (years).

What are the five parts of the climate system?

Atmosphere, land surface, hydrosphere, biosphere, and cryosphere.

What is the greenhouse effect?

The process by which greenhouse gasses trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere after the Sun's energy warms the surface.

Which gas is considered the most significant greenhouse gas?

Water vapor.

What human activities contribute to increased greenhouse gases?

Fossil fuel combustion, electricity generation, industrial processes, deforestation, livestock raising, and rice cultivation.

What significant temperature change has been observed since 1861?

The average global temperature of the troposphere has risen by 0.7 degrees Celsius.

What were the predicted increases in global average temperature?

Optimistic: +1.8 degrees Celsius; Pessimistic: +4.0 degrees Celsius.

What issues does climate change pose for human health?

Increased range of disease vectors, food supply disruptions, and extreme weather events leading to injuries and famine.

What is the Kyoto Protocol?

An international agreement to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases signed in 2005, which the US declined to sign.

What are some effects of ozone depletion on human health?

Increased risk of skin cancer, Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, cataracts, and weakened immune system.

Define biodiversity crises.

The current global extinction rate of species is at least 100 times higher than it was before humans existed.

What threats contribute to species extinction?

Habitat loss, disturbance of land, global climate change, ozone depletion, chemical pollution, and poaching.

Why is it important to preserve species?

To maintain ecosystem stability, biodiversity, provide pharmaceuticals, and for ethical reasons.

What are some unique exposure patterns in children's environmental health compared to adults?

Children have a limited diet, consume more food relative to body size, drink more water, and exhibit mouthing behavior and ingestion of soil.

Why do children experience higher exposure to environmental hazards?

Children spend more time indoors, crawl on the floor, and have a lower breathing zone, allowing them to be closer to dust, pollutants, and infectious agents.

What physiological differences make children more vulnerable to environmental hazards?

Children have a higher metabolic rate, more permeable skin, larger surface area of intestines, and less developed biotransformation processes.

What significant health risk factors are associated with women in relation to the environment?

Women influence the health of future generations, have a higher fat percentage, and are prone to conditions like breast cancer and osteoporosis.

What are some consequences of occupational noise exposure?

Noise can lead to tinnitus, threshold shift, cognitive failures, increased cardiovascular risks, and noise-induced hearing loss.

What is the relationship between environmental noise and hearing loss among different populations?

Hearing loss prevalence increased from 15% in 1988-1994 to 20% in 2005-2006, indicating a growing concern with recreational and occupational noise.

What are some environmental health concerns for the elderly population?

The elderly face chronic diseases and disabilities often exacerbated by poor environmental conditions such as pollution and microorganisms.

How do wars impact the environment?

Wars lead to human casualties, destruction of infrastructure, displacement of populations, and production of toxic substances.

What is the trend in global population growth rates?

Global population is growing at an exponential rate, with developed countries at 0.1% and developing countries at 1.5%.

What factors affect fertility rates in populations?

Factors include the role of children as labor, cost of raising children, education and employment for women, and access to family planning methods.

What is 'affluenza' and how is it linked to environmental health?

Affluenza refers to the overconsumption and materialism in search of happiness, leading to waste generation and depletion of resources.

What is the definition of transport in the context of toxicology?

Movements of contaminants within or between environmental media.

What does fate refer to in toxicology?

Physical, chemical or biological transformations of contaminants in the environment.

What are some key physical-chemical properties that affect the fate and transport of chemicals?

Volatility, polarity, solubility, oxidation state, molecular weight.

Define bioaccumulation.

Building up of a substance over time in individual organisms.

What is biomagnification?

Building up of substances over time across the levels in a food chain.

What general characteristics do higher-molecular-weight chemicals have?

More lipophilic, more persistent, less volatile, and less water-soluble.

What is toxicology?

The science of the effects of toxic substances and of their fate and transport in the body.

What is the purpose of exposure assessment in toxicology?

To quantify exposure to a substance.

List the three main routes of exposure to toxic substances.

Ingested, inhaled, absorbed through the skin.

What is the difference between acute dose and chronic dose?

Acute dose refers to a single, usually high dose; chronic dose refers to repeated or continuous low doses over time.

What does the term 'disposition of toxicants in the body' refer to?

Toxicokinetics.

What is the Paracelsus Principle?

The dose makes the poison; every chemical is harmful at some level of exposure.

What does the dose-response relationship illustrate?

The quantitative relationship between dose and effect (response).

What is the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL)?

The highest non-zero dose at which no effect was observed.

What is the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL)?

The lowest dose at which an effect was observed.

Define toxicodynamics.

The effects of toxic substances in the body.

What is a graded response in toxicology?

A response that varies as a function of the dose.

What do dose-response curves represent?

They show the relationship between the dose of a substance and the percentage of the population showing a response.

What is risk in the context of risk assessment?

The possibility or probability of suffering harm from a hazard.

What are the key phases of Risk Assessment?

Phase 1: Assessment, Phase 2: Characterization, Phase 3: Remediation/Management, Phase 4: Verification.

What is the purpose of risk assessment in regulatory science?

To set default procedures for bridging gaps in scientific understanding of hazards.

What does Phase 1 of Risk Assessment involve?

Document review, interviews, site inspection, and contacting authorities.

What is the main goal of the verification phase in risk assessment?

To confirm the estimates made during previous phases through verification sampling.

What is meant by 'Hazard Quotient'?

A unitless measure calculated as actual or estimated dose (EDI) divided by reference dose, indicating potential for harm.

How is the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) calculated?

EDI = Intake Rate (IR) x Concentration (C) x Bioavailability factor (B) x Exposure Frequency (EF) x Exposure Duration (ED) / Body Weight (BW) / Averaging Time (AT).

Describe the precautionary principle in risk assessment.

Precautionary measures should be taken when an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the environment, even if some cause and effect relationships are not fully established.

What is the significance of the terms NOAEL and LOAEL in toxicity assessment?

NOAEL (No Observed Adverse Effect Level) and LOAEL (Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level) are used to determine dose-response relationships.

What is the meaning of the term 'Carcinogenic Hazard'?

A toxicant's potential to cause cancer in humans, assessed by categories defined by the IARC.

What are some common types of transmissible foodborne illnesses?

Bacteria like Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Listeria monocytogenes.

What is methomoglobinemia also known as?

Blue baby syndrome, caused by nitrites in water.

What health effects can excessive use of pesticides have on humans?

Neurologic and reproductive effects; potential links to cancer.

What are the symptoms of foodborne illness?

Diarrhea, abdominal cramping, fever, vomiting, headache, sometimes blood in the stool.

How can foodborne illnesses be prevented?

Proper food storage, cooking food thoroughly, washing hands, and keeping the kitchen clean.

What food handling practices lead to foodborne illnesses?

Careless food handling, food standing too long at room temperature, improper cooking.

Which bacterium causes botulism?

Clostridium botulinum.

What is the main source of Salmonella infection?

Contaminated food, particularly poultry, eggs, and sometimes unwashed vegetables.

What bacteria are associated with serious illness in pregnant women?

Listeria monocytogenes.

What are common symptoms of listeriosis?

Fever, muscle aches, nausea, and can lead to meningitis or encephalitis.

What are shellfish-associated toxins?

Group of toxins from planktonic algae accumulated in shellfish, can cause neurological and gastrointestinal symptoms.

What is a significant dietary risk factor for the rapid acceleration of obesity?

Excessive nutrient intake and sedentary lifestyle.

What is the relation between high blood sugar and diabetes?

Type 1 diabetes is due to low insulin levels; Type 2 is due to insulin resistance.

What plants and animals supply 90% of the world's calorie intake?

14 plants and 8 terrestrial animals, with wheat, rice, and corn making up half of calories.

What is a primary concern regarding genetically modified crops?

Potential allergenic reactions and the spread of antibiotic resistance.

What is the definition of infectious disease?

Infectious disease is a host-centered concept where the human body is a habitat and host to many organisms, with harmful associations classified as infectious diseases.

What is zoonosis?

Zoonosis refers to infectious diseases that are transmissible to humans from other animals.

What are the four main types of pathogens?

The four main types of pathogens are worms (multicellular), protozoa (unicellular), bacteria (unicellular), and viruses (DNA or RNA strands).

What distinguishes active from passive immunity?

Active immunity occurs when the body produces antibodies upon first exposure to an antigen; passive immunity involves antibody preparation from an external source.

What is herd immunity?

Herd immunity provides practical protection; if enough members of a group are immune, it is difficult to maintain the chain of infection.

What is the purpose of vaccination in managing disease transmission?

Vaccination is used to prevent illness by preparing the immune system to recognize and fight specific pathogens.

What is antibiotic resistance?

Antibiotic resistance occurs when populations of pathogens develop resistance over time, often due to the overuse of antibiotics.

What is the fecal-oral transmission pathway?

The fecal-oral transmission pathway occurs when a person’s infectious diarrheal disease spreads to another person through contaminated water, soil, or hand-to-mouth contact.

What percentage of deaths worldwide are caused by respiratory infections, diarrheal disease, and HIV/AIDS?

These three categories account for 63% of infectious disease-related deaths worldwide (29% respiratory infections, 20% diarrheal disease, 14% HIV/AIDS).

What is tuberculosis (TB)?

Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease caused by bacteria that primarily affects the lungs and is characterized by symptoms such as chest pain, coughing, fever, and fatigue.

What are the three major clinical forms of anthrax?

The three major clinical forms of anthrax are cutaneous, inhalation, and gastrointestinal anthrax.

How is yellow fever transmitted?

Yellow fever is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes.

What is the primary mode of HIV transmission?

HIV is primarily transmitted through the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, or breast milk.

What is the main route of human infection for the West Nile virus?

The main route of human infection for the West Nile virus is through the bite of an infected mosquito.

What causes malaria?

Malaria is caused by four species of the protozoan Plasmodium, which lives as a parasite in the gut of female mosquitoes.