Final Exam Checklist

What is anatomical position?

Standing upright, feet forward, palms facing forward, arms at sides, eyes forward.

superior

above

inferior

below

medial

toward midline

lateral

away from midline

proximal

closer to attachment

distal

farther from attachment

What is homeostasis?

Maintaining a stable internal environment.

What is negative feedback? Give an example.

Reverses a change; example: body temperature regulation.

What is positive feedback? Give an example.

Amplifies a change; example: childbirth contractions.

What charges do protons, neutrons, and electrons have?

Protons +, neutrons 0, electrons -.

What makes an atom stable?

A full valence electron shell.

What is an ionic bond?

A bond formed by electron transfer.

What is a covalent bond?

A bond formed by sharing electrons.

What is a peptide bond?

A bond between amino acids.

Hydrophilic

water-loving

hydrophobic

water-fearing

Polar

unequal sharing

nonpolar

equal sharing

What is an acid?

A substance that releases H⁺ ions.

What is a base?

A substance that accepts H⁺ or releases OH⁻ ions.

pH of neutral

7

pH of bases

8-14

pH of acids

0-6

adenine pairs with

thymine

cytosine pairs with

guanine

What is dehydration synthesis?

Removing water to form bonds.

What is hydrolysis?

Adding water to break bonds.

Monomer of triglycerides?

Glycerol + 3 fatty acids.

Monomer of nucleic acids?

Nucleotides.

Monomer of proteins?

Amino acids.

Monomer of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides.

What is the fluid mosaic model?

Cell membrane is a flexible phospholipid bilayer with proteins.

Function of mitochondria?

Produce ATP.

Function of ribosomes?

Protein synthesis.

Function of the Golgi apparatus?

Modify, package, and transport proteins.

Function of lysosomes?

Digest worn-out cell parts.

What happens in mitosis?

Cell division into two identical daughter cells.

Hypotonic solution effect on cell?

Cell swells.

Hypertonic solution effect on cell?

Cell shrinks.

Isotonic solution effect on cell?

No net change.

What is transcription?

DNA → mRNA.

What is translation?

mRNA → protein.

Role of membrane receptors?

Detect and respond to chemical signals.

Main types of epithelial tissue?

Simple/stratified: squamous, cuboidal, columnar, pseudostratified, transitional.

Main functions of connective tissue?

Support, protection, transport, insulation, binding.

Difference between skeletal and cardiac muscle?

Skeletal: voluntary, multinucleate; Cardiac: involuntary, intercalated discs.

Main functions of skin?

Protection, vitamin D production, temperature regulation, sensation.

Layers of the epidermis (superficial → deep)?

Corneum, Lucidum, Granulosum, Spinosum, Basale.

Composition of the epidermis?

Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

Layers of hair shaft?

Cuticle, cortex, medulla.

Effect of PTH on blood calcium?

Increases blood calcium.

Effect of calcitonin on blood calcium?

Decreases blood calcium.

What do osteoblasts do?

Build bone.

What do osteoclasts do?

Break down bone.

What do osteocytes do?

Maintain bone.

Axial skeleton includes what?

Skull, vertebral column, ribs.

Appendicular skeleton includes what?

Limbs and girdles.

What is a fontanel?

Soft spot in infant skull.

What is a sesamoid bone?

A bone inside a tendon (e.g., patella).

Endochondral ossification forms what?

Most bones from cartilage.

Intramembranous ossification forms what?

Flat bones of skull.

What causes bone length growth?

Epiphyseal plate activity.

Abnormal spinal curvatures?

Scoliosis, hyperlordosis, hyperkyphosis.

Functional classifications of joints?

Synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis.

What is a synovial joint?

Freely movable joint with synovial cavity.

Define flexion.

Decreasing the angle between bones.

Define abduction.

Movement away from midline.

Define pronation.

Palm facing down.

Define supination.

Palm facing up.

Order of muscle structure (big → small)?

Muscle → fascicle → fiber → myofibril → sarcomere.

First step at the neuromuscular junction?

Action potential arrives at axon terminal.

What neurotransmitter is released at NMJ?

Acetylcholine (ACh).

What does ACh bind to?

Receptors on sarcolemma.

What ion triggers muscle contraction?

Calcium (Ca²⁺).

What is myasthenia gravis?

Autoimmune destruction of ACh receptors.

What is the fulcrum in a lever system?

The joint.

Epimysium wraps what?

Whole muscle.

Perimysium wraps what?

Fascicles.

Endomysium wraps what?

Individual muscle fibers.

Order of meninges from outer to inner?

Dura → Arachnoid → Pia.

Space containing CSF?

Subarachnoid space.

What is depolarization?

Na⁺ enters the cell.

What is repolarization?

K⁺ exits the cell.

Function of Schwann cells?

Produce myelin in PNS.

Function of ependymal cells?

Circulate CSF.

Five components of a reflex arc?

Receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector.

Function of cerebellum?

Coordination and balance.

Function of thalamus?

Relay station for sensory information.

Sympathetic division function?

Fight or flight.

Parasympathetic division function?

Rest and digest.

Structures of the eye?

Cornea, iris, lens, retina, optic nerve.

Structures of the ear?

Outer ear, middle ear (ossicles), inner ear (cochlea, semicircular canals).

What causes glaucoma?

Increased intraocular pressure causing optic nerve damage.