College Writing

Parallelism

Maintaining consistent grammatical structures in a series

Parallelism Example

“singing, dancing, and acting" instead of "singing, dancing, and to act”

"Who" vs. "Whom"

• Who: Does the action (He).

• Whom: Receives the action (Him)

Rule: Each, Every, Either, Neither, and Anyone

are ALWAYS singular.

Phrases like "along with," "as well as," and "in addition to" are NOT the same as

“and." They do not make the subject plural.

Passive Voice

The action happens to the subject ("The meal was cooked by the chef").

Dangling Modifier

A descriptive phrase where the noun it modifies is missing from the sentence, usually at the start.

Comma Splice

Incorrectly joining two independent clauses with only a comma.

Rhetorical Analysis

Evaluating an author’s style, purpose, and audience.

Antecedent

The specific noun that a pronoun refers back to.

Fallacy

Logical errors, such as "non sequitur" (conclusion doesn't follow the premise) or "begging the question" (assuming what needs to be proved).

Less vs. Fewer

Use "less" for non-countable nouns (e.g., less water) and "fewer" for countable ones (e.g., fewer students).

Farther vs. Further

Use "farther" for physical distance and "further" for depth or quantity.

Dangling Modifier Example

“After working out, the dog needed me to walk him." The Problem: It sounds like the dog was the one working out. The letter (I) is missing from the first part of the sentence.

Comma Splice Example

“The flowers are beautiful, they brighten the room." The Problem: This incorrectly joins two complete sentences with only a comma. You need a period, semicolon, or a conjunction (like "and") to fix it.

Rhetorical Analysis Example

“The CEO uses a firm tone to establish authority." It’s explaining how a writer/speaker says something to achieve a specific effect on the audience, rather than just summarizing what they said.

Antecedent Example

“When Charlie spotted a puppy, he took it home." The Example: Charlie is the antecedent because it is the specific noun that the pronoun "he" refers back to.

Parallelism

Consistency in structure for items in a series (e.g., "The cat liked to sleep, to eat, and to purr").

Sentence Fragment

An incomplete thought missing a subject, verb, or complete idea.

Active Voice

Preferred structure where the subject performs the action (e.g., "The deer jumped the fence").

Subject-Verb Agreement

Requirement that a singular noun uses a singular verb and a plural noun uses a plural verb.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

The rule that a pronoun must match the noun it refers back to in gender and number.

Denotation

The objective, literal definition of a word.

Connotation

The emotional associations or "feelings" a word carries.

Preposition Rule

Use "because of" rather than "due to" to introduce a phrase.

Conjunction Rule

Use "as," not "like," to connect clauses.

Logos

An appeal based on LOGIC, facts, or statistics.

Kairos

(Timeliness): Appealing to the specific "right time" or urgency of an argument.

Pathos

An appeal based on emotion or the audience's feelings.

Ethos

An appeal based on the credibility or authority of the speaker.

Primary Source

The original item or firsthand account providing information.

Secondary Source

An analysis or essay written about a primary source.

MLA Block Quote

Used for quotes longer than 4 lines; it requires no quotation marks.

Et al

Latin for "and others," used in citations for sources with multiple authors (typically 3 or more).

Comply with

(NOT comply to): "You must comply with the rules."

Different from

(NOT different than): "My car is different from yours."

Interested in

(NOT interested on): "She is interested in biology."

Responsible for

(NOT responsible of): "Who is responsible for this mess?"

Insight into

(NOT insight about): "The book gives insight into history."

When you see an idiom or grammar question, read it silently in your head.

If it "sounds" clunky, it’s likely an idiom error or a dangling modifier.

Affect

(Verb): To influence. ("The weather will affect my mood.")

Effect

(Noun): The result. ("The medicine had a positive effect.")

Accept

To receive or agree to. ("I accept the invitation.")

Except

Excluding. ("Everyone went except Sam.")

Its

(Possessive): Belonging to it. ("The dog wagged its tail.")

It’s

(Contraction): Short for "it is." ("It'sraining outside.")

Complement

Something that completes or goes well with. ("The wine complements the steak.")

Compliment

A nice comment. ("He gave her a compliment on her hair."

Elicit

To draw out a response. ("The joke elicited a laugh.")

Illicit

Illegal or forbidden. ("They were caught in an illicit trade.")

Stationary

Not moving. ("The car remained stationary.")

Stationery

Writing paper and envelopes. (Memory trick: Stationery is for letters.)

Allusion

An indirect reference. ("The book made an allusion to Shakespeare.")

Illusion

A false perception or trick. ("The magician created an illusion.")

Disinterested

Unbiased/Neutral. ("A judge must be disinterested.")

Uninterested

Bored or not caring. ("He was uninterested in the movie.")

Precede

To come before. ("The 1920s precede the 1930s.")

Proceed

To go forward or continue. ("Please proceed to the next gate.")

In your essay, don’t just name-drop these terms

Explain why the author used them (e.g., "The author employs logos to make their argument feel indisputable").

modifier

a word, phrase, or clause that provides extra description or detail about another word in a sentence.

Idiom

“cultural shorthand"—the meaning is baked into the expression itself rather than the dictionary definitions of the words.

Logical agreement

If you start a sentence talking about a group of people, you can't suddenly switch to a single object if that group is supposed to own or be that object.

Semicolon (independent clauses)

joins two independent clauses (complete sentences) that are related in meaning without using a conjunction like and or but.

Semicolon (independent clause) Ex

"I have a big presentation tomorrow; I need to prepare my notes tonight".

Semicolon (conjunctive adverb)

When joining two complete sentences with a "transition word" (conjunctive adverb) like however, therefore, or moreover, place a semicolon before the word and a comma after it.

Semicolon (conjunctive adverb) Ex

“The course is hard; nevertheless,the teacher is pretty funny".

Semicolon (complex lists/super comma)

Use semicolons to separate items in a list if those items already contain their own commas. This prevents the reader from getting confused about where one item ends and the next begins.

Semicolon (complex lists/super comma) Ex

“The panel included Susan Wu, a psychiatrist; Michael Bradford, a ballistics expert; and George Frye, a police investigator".

“Singular Distractors" (Indefinite Pronouns)

Words that sound plural but always take a singular verb:

• Each / Every

• Either / Neither

• One / No one / Anyone / Someone

• Everyone / Everybody
  (Ex: "Each of the dogs is barking.")

Prepositional Trap Rule (Subject-Verb Agreement)

To find the correct verb in a CLEP sentence:

1. Identify the subject (usually Each, Neither, or Everyone).

2. Ignore the phrase starting with "of" (e.g., of the runners).

3. Match the verb to the singular subject.
   (Ex: "Neither [of the options] was correct.")

The "Neither/Nor" & "Either/Or" Rule

When subjects are joined by or/nor, the verb matches the closer noun:

• Neither the coach nor the players were late.(Players = plural)

• Neither the players nor the coach was late.(Coach = singular)

The "None" Rule (Formal CLEP Standard)

In formal writing, "None" is usually treated as "Not one" (singular):

• None [of the students] is exempt.

• None [of the water] was wasted.
  (Tip: If you can replace it with "Not one," use the singular verb.)

MLA format (citation)

Includes the author, the quote, and the page number in parentheses

Book Identification

Title is italicized; includes a Publisher name (e.g., Penguin, Wiley).

Article Identification

Title is in "Quotation Marks"; followed by the name of a larger journal or magazine.

Pamphlet Identification

Title is italicized; includes a specific bracketed tag like [Brochure] or [Pamphlet].

Manuscript Identification

Often lacks a publisher; includes an Archive/Library location(e.g., Yale University Library) or the term "Unpublished."

Journal Identification

Includes Volume and Issue numbers (e.g., Vol. 12, No. 4) and page ranges.

Webpage Identification

Includes a URL or DOIand an "Accessed" date.

Anthology Identification

Includes an Editor (Ed.) and usually contains multiple works within a single italicized title.

Diction

It is the process of selecting the most effective words to convey a specific message, establish a particular tone, or reach a specific audience.

What organizational structure is most appropriate for an argumentative essay?

Effective arguments follow claim - evidence - rebuttal progression.

Aphorism

A brief, pithy statement that expresses a general truth or moral principle.

• Example: "A penny saved is a penny earned."

Analogy

A comparison of two different things that are similar in some way, often used to explain a complex or unknown concept by comparing it to something familiar.

• Example: "Running a business is like steering a ship; you must navigate the waves of the market to reach your destination."

Metaphor

A figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unrelated things without using "like" or "as".

• Example: "The classroom was a zoo."

Hyperbole

An intentional and extreme exaggeration used for emphasis or effect rather than literal truth.

• Example: "I’ve told you a million times to clean your room."

Cause and Effect Organization

An outcome is explained by identifying what led up to it

Effective use of evidence in a paper

Introducing a statistic and explaining how it supports the argument

Logical fallacy (aka ad hominem)

Speaker attacks opponent instead of argument

Syntax

The specific arrangement and ordering of words within a sentence to create meaning or impact.

• Example: Varying sentence length (short vs. long) to control the pacing of a paragraph.

Rhetorical Framing

Presenting a single issue in a specific light to influence the audience's reaction.

• Example: Calling a tax a "voter-approved investment" (positive frame) versus a "government burden" (negative frame).

Hypophora

Asking a question and immediately answering it to control the narrative.

• Example: "Why go to the moon? Because it is hard and will challenge our best skills."

Antithesis

A specific form of juxtaposition that uses parallel structure to contrast opposite ideas.

• Example: "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind".

Juxtaposition

Placing two contrasting ideas side-by-side to highlight their differences.

• Example: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times".

Anaphora

Repeating the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive sentences or clauses.

• Example: "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds..."

Coherence comes from…

grouping, logical flow, and transitions.

Neither

Consequently

signals results or outcomes

Anthology

A published collection of various writings (such as poems, short stories, or essays) by different authors, compiled into a single volume by an editor.

Euphemism

A mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing.

• Example: Using "passed away" instead of "died".