AP Psychology EXAM Unit 2: Cognition

perception

the process by which individuals interpret & organize sensory information to understand their environment; recognizing, organizing, making sense of sensory input

sensation

the raw data or information that we receive from our sensory receptors; detecting a stimulus

top-down processing

when one uses prior knowledge & experiences to interpret information, when a stimulus is familiar or simple; may make simple mistakes

bottom-up processing

building perception from the ground up, organizing & interpreting information as it comes without prior knowledge, when a stimulus is complex & unfamiliar; takes longer but typically no mistakes

schemas

mental frameworks built from past experiences; complex

perceptual sets

mental shortcuts the brain uses to quickly interpret experiences

psychological state, past experiences, individual differences

internal factors that influence how we perceive

psychological state

an internal factor of emotions, motivations, expectations that influence how we perceive

past experiences

an internal factor that influences how we perceive by shaping how someone interprets current situations and may create biasses

individual differences

personal traits (personality/cognitive abilities) that influence how we perceive

cultural background, social influences, physical environment

external factors that influence how we perceive

cultural background

an external factor that influences how we perceive by affecting interpretations/reactions

social influences

an external factor that modifies perception through the presence & expectations of others

physical environments

external factors such as lighting, color, and noise level that shapes perceptions

selective attention

focusing on a particular stimulus & ignoring surrounding stimuli

cocktail party effect

the ability to focus on a conversation or sound in a noisy setting

inattentional blindness

when attention is divided, one fails to notice stimulus within their visual field

change blindness

a type of inattention blindness where one fails to notice changes within the environment

apparent movement

when someone perceives motion when nothing's moving

phi phenomenon

when lights blink off & on in a sequence, which causes one to perceive moving objects

induced movement

when a still object is seen to be moving because of the motion of the surrounding objects

autokinetic effect

when a stationery point of light in a dark environment appears to move

gestalt psychology

this psychology focused on how human group elements try to form meaningful patterns to organize the perceptual world

figure & ground, continuation, closure, similarity, anomaly, proximity, symmetry

the principles introduced by gestalt psychology

figure & ground

a gestalt principle that describes how the visual system separates what we see into two categories

continuation

a gestalt principle that explains why our eyes naturally follow continuous lines or patterns

closure

a gestalt principle that explains how our brain subconsciously fills in missing information when viewing a familiar but incomplete object

similarity

a gestalt principle that explains how we perceive a group of similar objects or patterns as one cohesive unit

proximity

a gestalt principle that shows when objects are placed close together, they're perceived as one unit; objects spread further out or separated are different entires

symmetry

a gestalt principle that shows when objects are symmetrical, they're perceived as one object

depth perception

the ability to perceive an object's relative distance in one's visual field

binocular cues

vision that relies on both of the eyes working together

convergence & retinal disparity

the two parts of the binocular cues

convergence

a binocular cue that shows the way our eye moves inward while viewing closer objects, then apart when viewing further objects

retinal disparity

a binocular cue that allows us to see the difference of images when seen through the left vs right eye

monocular cues

vision that only requires one eye & helps perceive depths on flat or 2D surfaces

relative size, interposition, relative height, shading & contour, texting & gradient, linear perspective

the six parts of monocular cues

relative size

a monocular cue that allows us to identify how close an object is

interposition

a monocular cue that shows when objects are blocked away, they're further; the objects that do the blocking are closer

relative height

a monocular cue that tells us objects higher in our point of vision are further away

shading & contour

a monocular cue that shows hazy or less detailed objects as further away, while close & sharp objects are nearer

texture & gradient

a monocular cue that shows objects with details & are clear are closer, while blurry and less detailed objects are further

linear perspective

a monocular cue that sees parallel lines converging as help for understanding position/depth

motion parallax

closer objects appear to move quicker, while further objects appear to move slower

perceptual constancy

the ability to perceive objects with consistent shape, size, color, and lightness, even when the appearance changes due to varying conditions

size constancy

the brain's frequency to perceive objects as the same size even when it appears to be changing

color constancy

perceiving the color of an object to remain consistent, even when changed by the lighting

shape constancy

the brain's tendency to perceive an object's shape as consistent, even when it moves

lightness constancy

the ability to perceive the blackness, whiteness, grayness of an object as consistent even when the lighting is changing

cognition

the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge & understanding

concepts

mental categories that help with organizing & understanding the world

prototype (ex)

the most basic example of a concept

prototype

serves as a mental image that illustrates a concept & acts as a reference

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

changing a schema to incorporate new information

executive functions

located in the frontal lobe/prefrontal cortex; cognitive processes that help generate, organize, plan, and carry out goals; engages in critical thinking; relies on language, judgement, logic, reasoning

algorithms

very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems

heuristics

using mental shortcuts based on past experiences to solve certain problems; not accurate & may cause problems

representative & availability

the two types of heuristics

representative heuristics

involving making judgements based on how much something resembles a typical case/stereotype; may overlook information

availability heuristics

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

mental sets

cognitive frameworks relying on past experiences & successful strategies to solve new problems

limits creative thinking

what is a downside of mental sets?

priming

exposure to one stimulus influences how we respond to a later stimulus

repetition & somatic

the two types of priming

repetition priming

occurs when exposed to a specific stimulus that makes it easier to recognize the same or similar stimulus

somatic priming

involves the influence of one word on the interpretation of another related word

framing

how information is presented; shapes, interpretations/reactions, influencing decisions/judgements

creativity

when individuals create new, original ideas & solutions

divergent thinking

the exploration of many possible solutions, expanding the range of options for solving a problem

convergent thinking

narrowing down possibilities to identify the single best solution

expertise, imaginative thinking, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, creative environment

the five components to creativity

expertise

specialized knowledge, more likely to apply it in new & innovative ways

imaginative thinking

the ability to view concepts in unique & creative ways, not just focusing on traditional perspective

venturesome personality

a personality that seeks new experiences & embraces challenges

intrinsic motivation

an internal drive to to perform effectively for personal satisfaction

creative environment

surrounding oneself with creative people to foster innovation & promote creative thinking

functional fixedness

limits a person to using an object in only its traditional use

gambler's fallacy

the mistaken belief that if an event occurs more frequently than normal in a given period, it'll happen less frequently in the future or vice versa

sunk-cost fallacy

the tendency to continue to pursue an action in which one has already invested money, time, or resources into, regardless of its future value

memory

information that persist over time, acquired though experience

explicit memories

involves information we consciously recall; requires effort & thought

episodic & somatic

the two parts of explicit memories

episodic memory

relates to personal experiences/events

somatic memory

involves knowledge, facts, general information

implicit memories

information or skills we learn without being fully aware of it

procedural memory

an example of implicit memories; helps recalling how to perform tasks (motor skills/routines)

prospect memory

involves remembering to perform future actions

parallel processing

handles multiple stresses of information simultaneously

long-term potentiation

a biological process that strengthens synaptic connections between neurons through repeated activation

correct interpretations

when individuals' psychological states and external conditions align positively with the stimuli

incorrect interpretations

when emotional biases or cultural differences interplay with the visual input, leading to misunderstandings of what is actually presented

working memory model

a model that explains how our primary memory system processes & temporarily holds information for cognitive tasks (short-term memory)

visuospatial sketchpad, phonological leap, control executive

parts of the working memory model

visuospatial sketchpad

handles visual & spatial information; allows us to visualize objects & their location

phonological leap

deals with verbal & auditory information

phonological store & articulatory rehearsal processes

parts of the phonological leap

phonological store

"inner ear"; holds spoken words & sounds for a short period of time

articulatory rehearsal processes

"inner voice"; helps repeating & rehearsing verbal information to keep it active in the working memory

control executive

the control centre for memory; focuses attention, prioritizing tasks, switching between activities, integration information