Core Perspectives & Research Methods

This set of flashcards encapsulates key sociological concepts and methodologies discussed in the lecture, providing definitions and examples for each term.

Sociological Imagination

The ability to see the relationship between personal experiences and larger social forces.

Dualisms

Analytical divides that separate social life into two opposing parts, such as small-scale interaction vs. large-scale systems.

Social Structure

The stable, enduring patterns of social arrangements and institutions that shape society.

Agency

The capacity of individuals to act independently and make their own free choices.

Independent Variable

The variable that is hypothesized to cause or influence a change in another variable.

Dependent Variable

The outcome or variable that is being measured and is affected by the independent variable.

Sampling on the Dependent Variable

A research error where cases are selected based on a shared outcome, leading to biased results.

Comparative Method

A research technique that compares two or more social settings to identify patterns or differences.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to interpret or seek out information that confirms one's existing beliefs.

Informed Consent

The ethical requirement that research participants be told about the study's risks and voluntarily agree to join.

Quantitative Methods

Research relying on numerical data, statistics, and mathematical modeling.

Qualitative Methods

Research relying on non-numerical data like words, observations, and deep meanings.

Experiments

A method used to test a hypothesis under highly controlled conditions by manipulating a variable.

Surveys

A data collection tool consisting of a series of questions sent to a large group of people.

Interviews

A qualitative method involving a conversation where a researcher asks open-ended questions.

Participant Observation

A method where the researcher joins the group they are studying to observe behavior in a natural setting.

Historical/Content Analysis

The study of recorded human communications, such as books and historical records.

Unit of Analysis

The major entity that is being analyzed in a study (individual, group, or organization).

Hypothesis

A testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

Operationalization

The process of defining a fuzzy concept into a strictly measurable variable.

Non-response Bias

A bias that occurs when the people who choose not to respond to a survey are different in a meaningful way.

Correlation vs. Causation

The distinction between two variables moving together (correlation) vs. one variable causing the other (causation).

Spurious Relationship

A false correlation between two variables caused by a hidden third variable.

Validity

The degree to which a measurement reflects the concept it is intended to measure.

Reliability

The consistency of a measurement; getting the same result every time.

Situation

The specific social context that dictates the rules of behavior.

Collective Effervescence

A feeling of intense energy and unity experienced during a group ritual.

Rituals

A sequence of activities performed in a sequestered place.

Network Graphs

A visual map showing individuals as points and their relationships as lines.

Nodes & Ties

Nodes are individual actors; Ties are relationships or connections between them.

A/Symmetrical Ties/Relationships

Symmetrical ties are equal; Asymmetrical ties involve power imbalances.

Dyadic

A social group or interaction consisting of exactly two people.

Triadic

A social group or interaction consisting of three people.

Structural Holes

A gap between two groups in a social network that lacks a connecting link.

Social Capital

The resources, trust, and information gained through social networks.

Economic Capital

Money, property, and other financial assets.

Anomie

A state of 'normlessness' where society provides little moral guidance.

Ascribed vs. Achieved Status

Ascribed is a status you are born with; Achieved is a status you earn.

Heterogamy vs. Homogamy

Homogamy is marrying someone similar; Heterogamy is marrying someone different.

Impression Management

The process of trying to control the perceptions others form of us.

Performance

All the activity of an individual during a period marked by their presence before an audience.

Roles

The expected behaviors, rights, and obligations attached to a particular status.

Props

Objects used to enhance or reinforce a social performance.

Setting

The physical environment where a social performance takes place.

Audience

The people who witness a performance and evaluate its sincerity.

Manner

The attitude or style projected during an interaction.

Front Stage

The place where the formal social performance is given to an audience.

Back Stage

The place where the performance is dropped and an individual can relax.

Scripts

Pre-established patterns of dialogue and action for a specific social situation.

Collective Representations

Symbols or images that represent the shared beliefs and values of a group.

Social Norms

The informal rules and expectations that guide behavior in a group.

Breaching Norms

Intentionally breaking a social norm to observe the reaction of others.

Deviance

The recognized violation of cultural norms.

Stigma

A powerful negative label that greatly changes a person's self-concept.

Socially Constructed

The idea that meanings and 'realities' are created by society.

Functionalist Approach

A theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together for stability.

Conflict Approach

A theory that views society as an arena of inequality generating conflict and change.

Labeling Theory

The idea that deviance results from how others respond to individuals.

Collateral Effects

The unintended consequences of a social action or policy.

Socialization

The lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential.

Primary Socialization

The initial socialization during childhood, primarily through family.

Secondary Socialization

Socialization that occurs later in life in specialized groups.

Re-socialization

The process of discarding old behavior patterns and accepting new ones.

De-socialization

The process of relinquishing an old identity or set of norms.

Anticipatory Socialization

Social learning that helps a person achieve a desired position in the future.

Explicit vs. Implicit Socialization

Explicit is direct instruction; Implicit is learning by observing.

Declarative vs. Non-declarative Knowledge

Declarative is knowing what (facts); Non-declarative is knowing how (skills).

Total Institution

A setting where people are isolated and manipulated by an administrative staff.

Masculinity

The set of social attributes and roles associated with boys and men.

Femininity

The set of social attributes and roles associated with girls and women.

Functionalist vs. Conflict Approaches to Education

Functionalists see schools sorting people into jobs; Conflict theorists see schools reproducing inequality.

Social Reproduction

The process by which social inequality is passed from one generation to the next.

Cultural Capital

Non-financial social assets that promote social mobility.

Racialization

The process of ascribing ethnic or racial identities to relationships or groups.

Achievement Gaps

The disparity in academic performance between groups of students.

Opportunity Gaps

The unequal distribution of resources and opportunities based on race, class, or gender.

Social Class

A group of people with similar levels of wealth, influence, and status.

Concerted Cultivation vs. Natural Growth

Middle-class parenting schedules life; working-class parenting allows free time.

Cultural Matching

The tendency of employers to favor people who share their cultural tastes.

Double Segregation

The separation of students by both race and poverty.

Embodiment

The way social factors become physically part of our bodies and movements.

Beauty Regime

The set of practices and standards to achieve a socially ideal appearance.

Visual, Consumer, and Aesthetic Culture

A culture focused on appearance, products, and style.

Democratization

The process of making something accessible to everyone, regardless of class.

Embodied Ease

The physical feeling of comfort and belonging in high-status environments.

Comportment

A person’s behavior, manner, and physical bearing.

Distinction

The use of cultural tastes to establish oneself as superior in social class.

Resources

The physical, social, or mental tools used to navigate social life.

Code Switching

The practice of alternating between languages or varieties of language in conversation.

Habitus

Deeply ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions due to life experiences.

Organizations & Formal Organizations

Groups with identifiable membership engaging in collective action for a common purpose.

Bureaucracy

A large organization structured hierarchically and governed by formal rules.

Surveillance

The monitoring of behavior or activities for the purpose of influencing or managing.

Work

The carrying out of tasks that involve the expenditure of effort.

Occupations

Work done in exchange for a regular wage or salary.

Division of Labor

The assignment of different parts of a task to improve efficiency.

Alienation

The feeling of being disconnected from the product and process of one's labor.

Informal Economy

Economic activity that is neither taxed nor monitored by a government.

Service & Gig Work

Work that provides a service rather than a physical product.

Precarity

A state of persistent insecurity regarding employment and income.