Social Responsibility + PTSD Etiology/Prevalence

Darlene and Latene (1968)

Research Method: True Experiment

Aim: To investigate if the number of witnesses of an emergency influences people's helping in an emergency situation. M: Participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire in a room. While they sat there, the room slowly filled with smoke. The researchers measured how long it took for the participants to notify someone about the smoke. The IV was the number of people in the room. [Condition 1: The participant was alone/ Condition 2: The participant was with 2 other participants/ Condition 3: The participant was with 2 paid confederates who acted as if the smoke was not a problem] R: When there were 3 participants, only 38% of them helped. This provides evidence for diffusion of responsibility as this figure is much lower than when participants were alone (75%). The rate of helping drops to 10% when they are with 2 passive confederates C: Number of bystanders has a major effect on the participant's reaction. Thinking that other people might intervene influenced bystanderism.

Ethical Consideration: Informed Consent

Levine (1994)

Research Method: Correlational Study

A: To examine cultural differences in helping behaviour in a cross-national sample for 36 major cities across the US M: Confederates would pretend to be in need of some kind of help (e.g. needing help crossing the street) R: Population density and population size were negatively correlated with rates of helping other people. It was also found that helping rates began to decline when the population size was around 300000 or above. C: Diffusion of Responsibility

Ethical Consideration: Debriefing

Steblay (1987)

Research Method: Meta-analysis

A: To compare of how helpful people are in rural, compared with urban environments. M: Meta-analysis which gathered data from 65 studies comparing how helpful people who lived in rural areas were, compared with how helpful people who lived in urban areas were. R: People in cities were generally less helpful compared to people in the countryside. C: The tendency to help strangers is reduced as the size of a city increases (300,000+)

Ethical Consideration: Anonymity

Batson (1981)

Research Method: True Experiment

Aim: To see if empathy results in prosocial behaviour M: Participants filled out a questionnaire about themselves first. Had a confederate named Elaine; she was asked to complete a test of digit recall. She would receive an electric shock if she would give an incorrect response. Elaine was made to be either very similar to the participant or very different. R: If empathy was high then the participant was willing to switch places, even if escape would have been easy. However, if empathy was low and there was an easy rate of escape then participants would choose to not switch with Elaine and continue on with the experiment which entailed Elaine continuing to receive shocks. C: Feelings of empathy will increase the chances of acting altruistically, which is called the empathy-altruism hypothesis.

Ethical Consideration: Informed Consent

Cialdini (2008)

Research Method: Field Experiment

A: To investigate the effect of descriptive social norms on compliance. M: Completed over 80 days in an Arizona hotel. Randomly put one of two different cards into each room, each asking the guests to reuse their towels. One card: "Help save the environment", and explained to guests how reusing their towels would have a positive impact on the environment. Other card: "Join your fellow guests in helping to save the environment". This card explained 75% of the guests help by using their towels more than once. R: There was a significant difference in the percentage of reusing of towels depending on the card. For the first condition with the environmental focus, 35% of participants reused their towels. For the second condition, which implemented the use of consensus, 44% of participants reused their towels. C: People are influenced/persuaded into compliance and pro-social behaviour. It also links to the self-esteem hypothesis and conformity.

Ethical Consideration: Debriefing

Bickman (1974)

Research Method: Field Experiment

A: To see how the uniform of an individual affects the levels of obedience of the participants. M: Confederates dressed up as either a civilian, a milkman or a guard, and asked a random person on the street to do a nice act for a stranger (i.e. pick up a piece of rubbish, give 10 cents to a stranger, move away from a bus stop). R: People were 2-3 times as likely to follow orders given by the guard compared to the civilian. For example, with the 'coin and parking meter' condition, the number of participants who obeyed the guard was 89%, whereas the number of participants who obeyed the civilian was as low as 33%. C: People more likely to comply in the presence of an authority figure.

Ethical Consideration: Debriefing

Bushman (1988)

Research Method: Field Experiment

A: To investigate the effect of obedience to authority on prosocial behavior. M: A female confederate dressed in either a uniform, professional attire or sloppy clothing. They instructed a passerby to give someone, who was standing by an expired parking meter, some change. R: Police uniform 72% obeyed (perceived high authority); Business executive 48% obeyed; Beggar clothing 52% obeyed C: People will behave pro-socially in the presence of an authority figure.

Ethical Consideration: Debriefing

Levine (2001)

Research Method: Correlational Study

A: Investigate cross-cultural differences in rates of prosocial behavior. M: This study gathered data from 23 cities around the world. One co-variable was the rate of helping, which was measured by things like how many people would help a blind person cross the street, post a dropped envelope or pick up someone’s dropped pen. Other co-variables were GPD (gross domestic product – a measure of a country’s wealth), life pace (measured by how fast people walk) and individualism/collectivism. R:Strongest correlation was an inverse correlation between economic productivity and helping C: Cities that have higher rates of helping are economic prosperous, poorer cities tend to have higher rates of helping

Ethical Consideration: Debriefing

Karl et al (2006)

Research Method: Correlational Study

A: To see if brain structure is correlated with PTSD symptoms. M: Meta-analysis; compared 50 studies involved MRIs on different areas of the brain (mainly hippocampus and amygdala) R: Strongest correlation was between reduced hippocampi volume and PTSD. Also correlation between reduced amygdala volume and PTSD symptoms C: PTSD symptoms of loss of memory and increased feelings of anxiety, amygdala activates stress hormones and hippocampus is responsible for memory consolidation

Ethical Consideration: Anonymity

Gilbertson et al (2002)

Research Method: Correlational Study

A: To see if low hippocampal volume is a risk factor for PTSD using 34 sets of identical twins. M: 34 sets of identical twins (with one trauma exposed twin each pair); one pair, twin not develop PTSD, and other pair twin did develop PTSD; MRI scans were used to measure hippocampal volume R: Twins of those who developed PTSD had 10% less volume in the hippocampus. Correlation between smaller size and worse PTSD symptoms. C: This means those with smaller hippocampi tended to have worse symptoms

Ethical Consideration: Anonymity

Urry et al (2006)

Research Method: True Experiment

Aim: To investigate the effect of cognitive reappraisal on amygdala activation. M: 19 participants (without PTSD) were exposed to a range of emotional stimuli that were flashed on a screen while they were in an fMRI machine. They were asked to cognitively reappraise the stimuli by either increasing, decreasing or attending. They could “increase” by imaging the scene happening to someone they loved, “decrease” by imagining it wasn’t real or “attend” by simply focusing on the details of the image. R: The results showed a negative correlation between vmPFC and amygdala activation – the higher the vmPFC activity, the lower the amygdala activation C: This could explain the common finding of hypofunction and reduced volume in the vmPFC in patients with PTSD.

Ethical Consideration: Informed Consent

Hitchcock et al (2015)

Research Method: Correlational Study

A: To investigate correlations between negative appraisals after experiencing a traumatic event and the development of PTSD symptoms. M: Their participants were children aged 7-17 years who were admitted to hospital because they had experienced a one-off traumatic event (e.g. car accident, injury, house fire, etc.) Their symptoms of PTSD were measured within one month of the trauma and again after six months using the “Clinically Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) (modified for children). The kids’ negative appraisals were measured using a 25-item self-report questionnaire called the “Child Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (CPTCI).” R: They found that negative appraisals were positively correlated with PTSD symptoms. C: This means more negative appraisals increased the risk for PTSD symptoms.

Ethical Consideration: Anonymity

Garrison et al (1995)

Research Method: Correlational Study

A: To investigate cross-cultural differences in the US after Hurricane Andrew. M: 350 black, Hispanic, and white teenaged participants; Utilized STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS to study participants six months after the event and focused on their disaster experiences and emotional reactions R: Gender Difference: 9% of females and 3% of males were diagnosed with PTSD. Cultural difference: showing 8.3% rate of PTSD for black participants, and 6.1% for Hispanics due to a decreased ability to cope with the damages. C: Those with low socioeconomic status may develop negative thought patterns about how they will cope financially after a disaster, and this may lead to PTSD symptoms.

Ethical Consideration: Anonymity

Luby et al (2013)

Research Method: Correlational Study

A To see if poverty was correlated with brain development and to see if there were mediating variables related to stress and parenting that would explain this relationship. M: MRIs were used to measure correlations between poverty, stressful events and parenting styles with hippocampal volume in 145 children over a 10 year period. R: Poverty was associated with less white and grey brain matter and with smaller amygdala and hippocampal volumes. C: Small hippocampus can be linked PTSD.

Ethical Consideration: Informed Consent

Irish et al (2011)

Research Method: Correlational Study

A: To understand gender differences in the development of PTSD. M: 356 participants from Ohio had been in car accidents; Different questionnaires were used to gather data, like CAPS; Data covered income levels, PTSD severity of the injuries and life threat levels R: Women were more at risk to develop PTSD and perceived life threat higher. Income levels correlated negatively with PTSD symptoms. C: Women and people of lower SES are at higher risk to develop PTSD. This could be due to cognitive factors and coping resources (money).

Ethical Consideration: Anonymity