CHEMISTRY (chapter 1) 2025-2026

chapter 1 of saat chemistry with hakim Alsardi

Analytical chemistry

is a branch of chemistry that focuses on analyzing substances to determine their composition, quantity, and components.

such as food quality testing (checking sugar content in juice)

composition

what something is made out of and how its parts are put together.

the composition of water = hydrogen + oxygen

quantity

how much of something there is

components

The part that make something up (like how many hydrogen atoms in water, ect)

Organic chemistry

is a branch of chemistry that focuses on the study of carbon-containing compounds.

such as fuels, plastics, detergents, and food additives. (anything that contains a carbon atom)

Atomic chemistry

studies atoms, their structure, bonding, and electronic configurations.

so it focuses on the structure of atoms (protons, neutrons, and electrons). how atoms combine to form molecules. Properties of elements are based on their atoms, so how they look, react, or behave all depends on their atoms. and understanding how hydrogen and oxygen make water and why.

Biochemistry

studies chemical processes in living organisms

digestion of food, metabolism of glucose, DNA replication, enzyme activity in the human body

Environmental Chemistry

studies chemical processes in the environment and human interaction with it

(how chemicals interact with their environment), pollution and its effects, how chemicals move in nature, and how to clean or reduce harmful substances. acid rain ect.

Analytical chemistry focuses mainly on:

Analisis of substances to determine composition and quantity

which of the following is an example of organic chemistry

study of plastics and detergents

Which branch of chemistry studies atoms, their bonding, and electronic configuration?

analytical chemistry

electronic configuration?

the way an electrons are arranged around their atom, around its nucleus

physical chemistry

studies how matter behaves and reacts, often using physics to explain energy, motion, and reactions.

Which of the following processes belongs to biochemistry?

DNA replication

Environmental chemistry mainly studies

chemical processes in the environment and human interaction with it

which of the following is not an example of environmental chemistry?

enzyme activity in the human body

ozone gas

absorbs most of the harmful Ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun before it reaches the Earth’s surface, protecting living organisms from damage. It’s found in the stratosphere, and each molecule contains three oxygen atoms

Troposphere

earths closest layer, all of weather happens here, contains most of the air we breathe.

Stratosphere

the second layer, has the ozone layer which protects the earth from the suns harmful UV temperature increases with height.

Mesosphere

coldest layer of the atmosphere, (third layer), Most meteors burn up here before reaching Earth

Thermosphere

very high temperatures, contains charged particles (ionosphere) Auroras (Northern & Southern Lights) occur here

Exosphere

outermost layer, very thin layer it merges into space, state lights orbit here.

ozone hole

a hole in the atmosphere above antarctica caused by the depletion of the ozone layer by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigeration and refrigerators. CFCs are considered the most dangerous to the atmosphere. without enough ozone, the harsh UV can pass through and cause harm to humans such as skin cancer, blindness in the eyes. the reason why CFCs is harmful is because of its chlorine, which one tom can destroy thousands of oxygen atoms.

Gordon Miller Bourne Dobson

who studied the ozone layer in the atmosphere and found that the natural measurement of ozone is approximately 300 Dobson (du) units. he unit of measurement was named after him. a normal ozone level is about 300 du and anything lower that 220 du is classified as ozone hole.

what type of harmful rays are mostly absorbed by ozone gas?

ultraviolet

ozone gas is found in the atmosphere in a layer called

stratosphere

how many molecules are produced from 18 oxygen atoms?

6

the reason for depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere is:

chlorofluorocarbons

which of the following isi most dangerous to the atmosphere?

chlorofluorocarbons

which part of the atmosphere did Dobson study to measure ozone gas?

stratosphere

what is the approximate natural measurement of ozone gas in Dobson units?

300 Du

Theoretical research

is a type of research that focuses on developing ideas, concepts, models, or theories rather than collecting new data from experiments or surveys. such as the study of CFCs and their interactions with ozone without environmental evidence.

Applied research

is research that is conducted to solve problem. such as measuring the amount of CFCs and their effect on ozone

study of CFCs and their interactions with ozone without evidence is

theoretical research

research conducted to solve a specific problem is

applied research

Safety rules

laboratory safety rules are to wear safety goggles, a lab coat and to not wear contact lenses

which of the following is not a safety rule in the laboratory?

wearing contact lenses

Matter

anything that has mass and occupies space. this includes solids, liquids, gases and even plasma.

mass

mass is how matter is an object

weight

how heavy that object is because of gravity

mass is measured by

kilograms

weight is measured by

Newton (N)

does mass depend on gravity?

mass stays the same everywhere

does weight depend on gravity?

yes, weight changes with gravity

solid

has a definite shape and a definite volume. its particles are tightly packed and vibrate in fixed positions. (ice, wood, iron, etc...)

liquid

has a definite volume but no definite shape.(it takes the shape of its container). its particles are close together but can slide past one another.(water, oil, milk, etc.).

Gas

has no definite shape and no definite volume(it expands to fill its container). Its particles are far apart and move freely(oxygen, carbon dioxide, helium.)

plasma

the fourth state of matter, consisting of an ionized gas made up of made of positive ions and free electrons. This forms when a gas is heated very high temperatures or a strong electric field is applied. this causes the atoms to lose electrons and the gas to be ionized.

heat, light, and sound are..

not considered matter because they do not have a physical state of matter. they are forms of energy

which of the following cannot be classified as a matter?

heat

which of the following is classified as matter?

water

which on following is a measure of the amount of matter only?

mass

which of the following describes matter in the solid state?

its particles are tightly packed

what is the state of matter that has no fixed (definite0 shape or volume and whose particles are far apart from each other?

gas

which state of matter expands to fill both the shape and volume of its container?

gas

which state of matter expands to fill both the shape and volume of its container?

gas

the particles in a solid are:

tightly packed and vibrate in fixed positions

physical properties

characteristics of matter that can be observed or measured without changing the substance composition, you change the shape and size, does not add or remove any substance.

such as cutting paper, nothing is being added or removed.

intensive properties

These are properties that do not depend on the amount of substance, even if you have a small or large sample, the property stays the same. so no matter the size and the amount, intensive properties are just the density, boiling point, melting point, temperature, and color.

extensive properties

are properties that depend on the amount of substance. if you have more or less of the material, these values change. mass, volume, length, total energy, heat capacity, etc.

which of the following is a physical property?

boiling water

intensive properties are those that

do not depend on the amount of substance

which of the following is an intensive property?

density

extensive properties

include mass and volume

the color of a substance is considered

an intensive property

which of the following changes when you increase the amount of substance?

volume

which property can be measured without changing the substance composition?

physical property

mass is considered

extensive

chemical properties

the ability of a substance to react with another substance to form a new substance. such as formation of rust, the decomposition of sugar into water and vapor. combustion, such as the burning of wood or paper

which of the following is a chemical property

formation of of rust

Combustion, such as the burning of wood or paper, is an example of:

Chemical property

Which of the following indicates a chemical property of a substance?

Ability to react and form a new substance

Rusting of iron is caused by its reaction with:

Oxygen and water

5.Which of the following properties of table salt is a chemical property?

It decomposes in water.

Which of the following is not a chemical property?

Boiling of water

physical change

a change in the physical properties of a substance without changing its chemical composition.

what is physical change?

Change in state: Solid ↔ Liquid ↔ Gas (e.g., melting, freezing, evaporation)

Change in shape or size: Cutting, tearing, bending, or stretching

Change in appearance: Dissolving, mixing, or grinding

what is physical change controlled by?

The change of state of matter from one physical state to another is controlled by temperature and pressure

Endothermic Processes

processes that absorb heat from surroundings

what are examples of endothermic processes?

melting(fusion) the process in which a solid changes into a liquid

such as ice melting into water

Evaporation

The process in which a liquid changes into a gas.

what is an example of evaporation?

Water evaporates on a hot day.

• Boiling point: The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the external atmospheric pressure.

Sublimation

The process in which a solid changes directly into a gas without becoming a liquid first

what is an example of sublimation?

dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) turns directly into carbon dioxide gas

The change of state of matter from one physical state to another is controlled by two factors:

Pressure and Temperature

Which of the following is a physical change?

Breaking glass

Which of the following is a physical change?

Copper conducting (electricity because there is no substance formed)

Which of the following is a physical change?

Fusion/ Melting.

The temperature at which the vapor pressure becomes equal to the outside atmospheric pressure is

Boiling point

The smell of solid naphthalene in the air indicates that ----------- is occurring:

Sublimation

Which of the following processes represents sublimation?

I2 (s) → I2 (g)

Endothermic processes:

Absorb heat from the surroundings

Which of the following is an endothermic process?

Condensation of water vapor

Exothermic Processes

Processes that release heat to the surroundings

Freezing

The process in which a liquid turns into a solid

Water freezing into ice

(Water expands when it freezes.)

Condensation

The process in which a gas turns into a liquid.

: Water vapor condensing on a cold glass

Deposition

The process in which a gas turns directly into a solid without becoming a liquid first

Water vapor turning into solid ice

Which substance increases in volume when it changes from a liquid to a solid?

H₂O

The deposition process the opposite of which process?

Sublimation

Exothermic processes are those that

Release heat to the surroundings