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Plasmogamy
Fusion of cytoplasm in fungi.
Karyogamy
Fusion of nuclei.
Syngamy
Combined fertilization event (plasmogamy + karyogamy).
Mycorrhizae
Mutualism: fungi provide nutrients, plants provide sugars.
Lichen Photobiont
Green algae or cyanobacteria.
Lichens and Soil Formation
Lichens break down rock and trap particles, forming soil.
Alternation of Generations
Life cycle alternating between gametophyte (n) and sporophyte (2n).
Megasporangia
Produce megaspores → female gametophytes.
Microsporangia
Produce microspores → pollen (male gametophytes).
Key Angiosperm Adaptation
Flowers increase pollination success.
Freshwater Algae
Green algae (Chlorophyta).
Bryophyta
Mosses
nonvascular plants.
Pteridophyta
Ferns
seedless vascular plants.
Coniferophyta
Conifers
gymnosperms.
Anthophyta
Flowering plants
angiosperms.
Monocots
One cotyledon
parallel veins
scattered bundles
flower parts in 3s.
Dicots
Two cotyledons
branched veins
ring vascular bundles
flower parts in 4s or 5s.