Changes in American Families: Definitions and Dynamics, Theories and Methods in Family Research, Methods in Family Research and Ethical Considerations, Blending Work and Family Life Insights, Gender Socialization: Concepts and Theories

Definition of Family

an intimate environment in which two or more people: 1. live together in a committed relationship. 2. care for one another and any children. 3. share activities and close emotional ties

Census Bureau definition of family

Two or more persons related by birth, marriage, or adoption who reside in the same household

Family Functionality

The range of effectiveness and success in fulfilling the roles and responsibilities within a family.

Types of Families

Categories that classify different structures and compositions of families.

Changes Affecting Families

Factors that bring about modifications or influences on family dynamics.

Historical Changes

Alterations in family structures and norms over past periods.

Economic Changes

Modifications in family dynamics due to financial factors.

Demographic Changes

Shifts in family characteristics based on population statistics.

Dysfunctional Families

Families facing challenges such as homelessness, lack of food, unsanitary living conditions, and abuse.

Functional Families

Families that exhibit physical, emotional, and relational stability and support.

Resilient Families

Families that demonstrate strength and adaptability in coping with adversities.

Family of Origin (FOO)

The family where an individual originates or is born into.

Family of Procreation (FOP)

The family formed through marriage and having children.

Family of Creation (FOC)

Families formed through relationships beyond blood ties.

Choices of Family Types

Little or no choice of FOO. Lots of choices of FOP and FOC.

Balance of Familism and Individualism

The equilibrium between valuing family unity and personal independence.

Recent Economic Conditions

Current financial situations impacting families.

Aging of America

The increasing proportion of elderly individuals in the American population.

Postmodern Family

Modern family structures that encompass diverse forms beyond traditional nuclear families.

Theory

A set of general principles or concepts plus the interrelationships among the concepts that are used to explain data and make predictions that may be empirical.

Functions of theories

Organizes existing knowledge, describes and explains phenomena in a parsimonious way, connects different levels of phenomena, draws attention to important measurement processes, guides decisions, specifies mechanisms of change, identifies specific predictions, and generates testable hypotheses.

Theory - Parts

Object of study, set of assumptions (not testable), hypotheses (testable), methodology, guide use of terminology.

Structural-Functional Theory

Views the family as a social institution that performs essential functions for society.

structural-functional theory strengths & limitations

Strengths: reciprocity & family essential
Limitations: nuclear family as "normal" & "functional." biased towards 1950s traditional family. ignores social inequities

Feminist Perspective

Focuses on unequal power dynamics, advocates for social change, and raises awareness of family issues.
Michael P. Johnson:
1. men are privileged relative to women
2. that's not right
3. you're going to do something about it, even if it's only in your personal life

feminist perspective strengths & limitations

strengths: raised awareness of family issues -- unequal power.
advocates social change
limitations: biased -- white, middle class, heterosexual women
often ignores quantitative research

Family Ecology Theory

Explores how a family influences and is influenced by the environments that surround it. (nature/nurture)

family ecology theory strengths & limitations

strengths: biological and social needs considered
family embedded in larger environments implications for policy
limitations: too broad & inclusive to identify specific cause for particular problems or circumstances

Family Development (Life Course) Theory

Analyzes how families change predictably over time and focuses on stages of the family lifecycle.

Family Development (Life Course) Theory strengths & limitations

strengths: developmental chance & family dynamic and changing
limitations: stages are artificial, biased toward white, middle-class families. nuclear family structure taken for granted

Symbolic Interactionist Theory

Learning gender roles is shaped by our cultural context and are socially constructed.

symbolic interactionist theory strengths & limitations

strength: more than one "normal" family form. understanding of family based on members' viewpoints
limitations: difficult to test empirically. focuses on individual & ignores role of larger social context (too micro)

Social Exchange Theory

People use their resources to secure advantage in relationships, focusing on rewards, costs, and comparison levels.

social exchange theory strengths & limitations

strengths: uncomplicated explanations of human behavior
limitations: emotions ignored
altruism ignored
costs and rewards individualized

family bound ambiguity

unclear who is inside/outside the family system

Scientific Method

A structured method used to reduce bias and inaccuracies in experiential reality, involving deductive and inductive reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning from the general to the specific, beginning with a theory, defining a problem, generating hypotheses, collecting and analyzing data, and interpreting results in terms of supporting theory.

Inductive Reasoning

Reasoning from specific observations to develop a general theory, starting with data collection, analysis, and interpretation.

Ethical Considerations

Factors to consider in research, including avoiding harm to subjects, voluntary participation, informed consent, and addressing reactive effects and deception.

Time element

The consideration of time in research, distinguishing between cross-sectional (one-time) and longitudinal (multiple time points) studies, affecting generalizability of results.

Generalizability of results

The extent to which research findings can be applied to the outside world, with examples of high generalizability (national surveys) and low generalizability (case studies).

Correlation ≠ Causation

The principle that correlation between variables does not imply causation, emphasizing that only experiments can establish causality.

workfluent

Families who don't have time for their families or themselves due to work commitments.

finding a way to blend

The process of integrating work and family responsibilities harmoniously.

Flexibility at your workplace

Policy supporting working parents by allowing flexibility in work schedules.

Paid family leave

Policy supporting working parents by providing paid leave for family-related matters.

Quality child care

Policy supporting working parents by ensuring high-quality child care services.

Determine life's purpose

Tip to gain control over life by identifying and setting clear life goals.

Create an action plan

Tip to gain control over life by outlining specific steps to achieve set goals.

Prioritize your time and money

Tip to gain control over life by focusing on managing time and financial resources efficiently.

Outsource household activities

Tip to gain control over life by delegating household tasks to external services or individuals.

Reward yourself

Tip to gain control over life by acknowledging achievements and treating oneself for accomplishments.

Create a social support network both at work and home

Tip to gain control over life by establishing a supportive community in both professional and personal spheres.

3 policies for support working parents

Flexibility at your workplace, paid family leave, quality childcare

6 tips to gain control over life

determine lifes purpose, create an action plan, prioritize your time and money, outsource household activities, reward yourself, create a social support network.

Data Digest Ch. 1

The “traditional” family (in which the husband is the breadwinner and the wife is a full-time homemaker) declined from 40 percent of all U.S. households in 1970 to 14 percent in 2014.

In 2016, 20 percent of Americans ages 25 and older had never been married, up from 9 percent in 1960.

The U.S. median age at first marriage is the highest ever recorded: 29.5 for men and 27.4 for women.

On average, first marriages that end in divorce last about eight years.

The percentage of children under age 18 living with two married parents fell from 77 percent in 1980 to 65 percent in 2016.

Among women ages 19 to 44, 65 percent have cohabited, up from 33 percent in 1987.

What is a family?

two or more people who consider themselves related by blood, marriage, or adoption

How do families differ worldwide?

-Family structure
-Nuclear and extended families
-Residence patterns
-Authority and power
-Monogamy and polygamy

Myths about the family

families in the past were better; certain forms of family are more natural; families should be self sufficient; family is a loving refuge; the perfect marriage and family

Three perspective on the changing family

The family is declining
The family is changing, not declining
The family is more resilient than ever.

Micro-level influences on the family

individual choices and social interactions

Macro-level influences on the family

economy, technology, popular culture, social movements, family policies

Family research methods

surveys, clinical research, field research, secondary analysis of existing data, content analysis, experiments, evaluation research

ethics in research

informed consent
protection from harm/discomfort
maintain confidentiality
debriefing

politics in research

actions by organized advocacy groups, powerful interests in society, governments, or politicians to restrict or control the direction of social research

Surveys strengths and limitations

Fairly inexpensive and simple to administer; interviews have high response rates; findings often can be generalized to the whole population.
Mailed questionnaires may have low response rates; respondents may be self-selected; interviews usually are expensive.

Clinical research strengths and limitations

Helps people who are experiencing family problems; offers insights for theory development.
Usually time consuming and expensive; findings can't be generalized.

Field research strengths and limitations

Flexible; offers deeper understanding of family behavior; can be expensive or inexpensive depending on the project's scope and location.
Difficult to quantify and to maintain observer-participant boundaries; the observer may be biased or judgmental; findings can't be generalized.

secondary analysis of existing data strengths and limitations

Usually accessible, convenient, and inexpensive; often longitudinal and historical.
Information may be incomplete; some documents may be inaccessible; some data can't be collected over time.

content analysis strengths and limitations

Usually inexpensive; can recode errors; unobtrusive; permits comparisons over time.
Can be labor intensive; coding is often subjective (and may be distorted); may reflect social class bias.

experiment strengths and limitations

Attempts to demonstrate cause and effect; usually inexpensive; many available participants; can be replicated.
Subjects aren't representative of larger populations; artificial laboratory setting; findings can't be generalized.

colonial families

Family was very important in the colonies; couples married young and had many children. Most families lived on farms. Men worked, owned land, and dominated politics. Women did housework, educated the children, and worked with her husband.

early modern families

family: site for both production and consumption
kinship networks: strings of relationships between people related by blood and marriage
Lateral kinship ties endured
minimal division of labor between the sexes
children= "small adults"

The Golden Fifties

60 percent of female undergraduates dropped out of college to marry
women continued to enter the job market, husband worked and wife devoted herself to the home and the children
moving to the suburbs

transformative sixties

The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan sparked the women's movement throughout the last 1960s and challenge traditional gender roles throughout the 1970s and 1980s

How the economy affects families

family dynamics, financial hardship, parenting behaviors, housing

Two-income families

Families where both parents work, resulting in two people getting income

Inequality in the workplace

woman not paid as much for the same work; the NOW fought for equality; some women claim that physical appearance was often considered a job qualification, excluded from sports such as baseball and football, and began to use Ms. and started to refuse to take husband's last name; Title IX; women making more and more gains, especially in govt; 2007- Nancy Pelosi; SCOTUS- O'Connor, Ginsburg, Sotomayor and Kagan; Madeline Albright- 1st women US Secretary of State under Clinton; still have feminization of poverty, pay inequality, workplace discrimination (though not as large)

Families and Work Policies

FMLA (family and medical leave act), pregnancy discrimination act

nature-nurture debate

the arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are biologically innate or acquired through education, experience, and culture

Why do gender roles differ?

social expectations, gender stereotypes, culture

How do we learn gender roles?

Differential treatment, direct instruction, role models, media and cultural ideas

gender ideologies

widely shared beliefs about how men and women are and should be

traditional gender roles

a set of ideas about how "normal" men and women should look and act

gender roles in adulthood

gender stratification refers to people's unequal access to wealth, power, status, prestige, opportunity, and other valued resources because of their gender. In adulthood, there are issues of gender and family life, gender and the workplace, gender and politics, gender and education, gender and religion, and gender and interaction.

A major limitation of experiment is

Low generalizability

Social learning

a theory that suggests we learn social behaviors by watching and imitating others

Nonprobability sample

there is little or no attempt to get a representative cross section of the population

probability sample

a sample in which each member of the population has some known chance of being included

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Sex

Whether a person is biologically male or female, including chromosomal, hormonal, and anatomical components typically present at birth.

Gender

A social construction of culturally defined expectations for males and females, encompassing attitudes and behaviors that characterize women and men.

Gender Role

Socially constructed roles regarding what it means to be masculine or feminine in society, including attitudes, feelings, behaviors, beliefs, and values associated with and expected of males and females.

Gender Schema

The cognitive organization of individuals' behaviors, traits, and information learned about gender.

Gender Identity

The degree to which an individual sees themselves as feminine, masculine, transgender, or non-binary based on society's definition of appropriate gender roles.

Gender Stereotypes

Expectations about how people will look, act, think, and feel based on their sex, often describing the same behavior differently for women and men.

Gender Similarities and Differences

Men and women exhibit more similarities than differences, with overlapping distributions and greater within-group variation than between-group variation.

Overlapping Distributions

Statistical concept showing small differences between groups that may not be very meaningful, with means that can be very similar yet reported as statistically different.

Theories of Gender Socialization

Include Sociobiology, Social learning theory, Cognitive developmental theory, Symbolic Interaction theory, and Feminist theories, explaining why gender roles differ.

Socializing Agents

Entities such as parents, teachers, media, and peers that influence and shape individuals' gender socialization through various interactions and behaviors.