ap psych final

Biological Perspective

Explains behavior through brain, nervous system, genetics, and hormones.

Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on learned behaviors and effects of rewards/punishments.

Operational Definition

Clear, measurable description of how a variable is tested or observed.

Random Assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance to reduce bias.

Independent Variable

The variable changed by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The outcome measured in the experiment.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the IV; used for comparison.

Ethical Guidelines

Rules like informed consent, no harm, right to withdraw, and confidentiality.

Statistical Significance

Shows results are not likely due to chance (p < 0.05).

Neuron

Nerve cell that sends and receives signals.

Dendrites

Receive messages from other neurons.

Axon

Sends messages to other neurons.

Myelin Sheath

Speeds up neural transmission.

Synapse

Gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that carry messages across the synapse.

Dopamine

Influences movement and pleasure; too much = schizophrenia.

Serotonin

Affects mood and sleep; low levels = depression.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All other nerves.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates fight-or-flight.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body.

Cerebellum

Controls balance and coordination.

Amygdala

Emotion processing, especially fear.

Hippocampus

Forms new memories.

Brain Plasticity

The brain’s ability to change and adapt.

Circadian Rhythm

24-hour biological clock.

REM Sleep

Dreaming occurs; body is paralyzed.

Sleep Disorders

Examples include insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea.

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences (conscious).

Implicit Memory

Skills and procedures (unconscious).

Proactive Interference

Old info blocks new info.

Retroactive Interference

New info blocks old info.

Primacy Effect

Better memory for first items in a list.

Recency Effect

Better memory for last items.

Algorithm

Step-by-step method for solving problems.

Heuristic

Simple shortcut or rule of thumb.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to look for info that confirms our beliefs.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to use objects in new ways.

Top-Down Processing

Using past knowledge to interpret sensory input.

Bottom-Up Processing

Sensory input guides perception.

Gestalt Principles

The whole is greater than the sum of parts (e.g., proximity, similarity).

Convergent Thinking

One correct answer (logical).

Divergent Thinking

Many possible solutions (creative).

Language Development

Babies babble, then one-word, then two-word (telegraphic speech).

Critical Period

Optimal time for language development.

Piaget’s Stages

Sensorimotor (object permanence), Preoperational (egocentrism), Concrete (logic), Formal (abstract).

Assimilation

Fitting new info into existing schema.

Accommodation

Changing schema to fit new info.

Erikson’s Stages

Developmental challenges (e.g., identity vs role confusion in adolescence).

Authoritative Parenting

High warmth, high control—most effective.

Reinforcement

Increases behavior.

Punishment

Decreases behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Add good thing (e.g., praise).

Negative Reinforcement

Remove bad thing (e.g., stop nagging).

Positive Punishment

Add bad thing (e.g., detention).

Negative Punishment

Remove good thing (e.g., phone).

Shaping

Reinforcing steps toward a behavior.

Learned Helplessness

Giving up after repeated failure.

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge from experience (increases with age).

Fluid Intelligence

Problem-solving ability (declines with age).

Attribution Theory

Explaining behavior by traits (dispositional) or situation.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating personality, underestimating situation in others.

Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure increases liking.

Just-World Hypothesis

Belief that people get what they deserve.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on easy tasks in front of others.

Social Inhibition

Worse performance on hard tasks in front of others.

Internal Locus of Control

You control your fate.

External Locus of Control

Outside forces control your fate.

Central Route to Persuasion

Uses logic and facts.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Uses emotion and superficial cues.

Id

Instincts and desires (unconscious).

Ego

Reality; balances id and superego.

Superego

Moral conscience.

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious ways to protect self (e.g., denial, repression).

OCEAN (Big Five Traits)

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Intrinsic Motivation

Driven by internal rewards.

Extrinsic Motivation

Driven by external rewards.

Approach-Approach Conflict

Choose between two good things.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Choose between two bad things.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

One choice has pros and cons.

Anxiety Disorders

Persistent fear or worry (e.g., GAD, phobias).

Mood Disorders

Disruptive mood patterns (e.g., depression, bipolar).

Schizophrenia

Disordered thinking, hallucinations, delusions.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Obsessions = thoughts; Compulsions = actions.

PTSD

Trauma-related disorder with flashbacks and nightmares.

Biological Perspective on Disorders

Focus on genetics, brain structure, and neurotransmitters.

Cognitive Perspective on Disorders

Focus on irrational or negative thinking.

Behavioral Perspective on Disorders

Learned maladaptive behaviors.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Changes thoughts and behaviors.

Psychoanalysis

Focuses on unconscious and past conflicts.

Humanistic Therapy

Focus on growth and self-actualization.

Systematic Desensitization

Gradual exposure to feared stimulus.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Stress response stages