Vocabulary_-_Civilizations_in_Crisis

Janissaries

Elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and bodyguards.

Ayan

Local notables or landholding elites in the Ottoman Empire who played a significant role in provincial administration.

Sultan Selim III

Ottoman Sultan known for his attempts at modernization and military reform.

Ulama

Islamic scholars and jurists who interpret and teach Islamic law and theology in the Ottoman Empire.

Wahhabis

Followers of a strict interpretation of Islam stemming from the teachings of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, associated with Saudi Arabia.

Sultan Mahmud II

Reformist Sultan of the Ottoman Empire who undertook significant administrative and military reforms.

Young Turks

A revolutionary group aimed at reforming the Ottoman Empire through modernization and nationalist policies.

The Tanzimat Reforms

A series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire aimed at modernization and modernization of the state and society.

Sultan Abdul Hamid II

The last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire to exert effective control before the Young Turks revolution.

Fez

A type of brimless hat that became a symbol of reform in the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century.

Turkification

The process of promoting Turkish culture and identity to the diverse populations of the Ottoman Empire.

Congress of Berlin

The 1878 meeting of European powers that reshaped the map of the Balkans and impacted the Ottoman Empire.

Russo-Turkish War

Conflict between the Ottoman Empire and Russia that led to significant territorial losses for the Ottomans.

Islamic Heartlands

Regions of the Middle East and North Africa central to the development of Islamic civilization.

Mamluks

Military rulers in Egypt who held power before the Ottoman conquest and were known for their slave-soldier armies.

Muhammad Ali

Ottoman governor who modernized Egypt and established it as a semi-autonomous state.

Khedive

A title for a viceroy of Egypt under Ottoman rule during the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Suez Canal

An artificial waterway in Egypt connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, completed in 1869.

Muhammad Abduh

Prominent Islamic reformer who advocated for a rational understanding of Islam and modernization in the early 20th century.

Ahmad Orabi

Egyptian nationalist leader who led a revolt against foreign influence and foreign control in Egypt.

Khartoum

Capital city of Sudan where significant historical events took place during the British-Egyptian administration.

Muhammad Ahmad Mahdi

Religious leader who proclaimed himself the Mahdi and led a rebellion against British and Egyptian rule in Sudan.

Khalifa Abdallahi

Successor to the Mahdi and leader of the Sudanese forces against British colonization.

Qing Dynasty

The last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912.

Sinification

The process whereby non-Han Chinese societies come under the influence of Han Chinese state and culture.

Empress Cixi

The Empress Dowager Cixi was a powerful and influential ruler in China who effectively controlled the Qing Dynasty from 1861 until her death in 1908. Initially a concubine of the Xianfeng Emperor, she rose to power as regent and was known for her efforts to modernize China through selective reforms while also resisting foreign encroachment and influence. Her controversial reign saw both the internal turmoil of the Boxer Rebellion and the challenges posed by Western powers.

Comprador

A Chinese businessman who acted as an intermediary between foreign businesses and Chinese markets.

Lin Zexu

Chinese scholar-official known for his staunch opposition to the opium trade and efforts during the Opium War.

Opium War

Conflicts between China and Britain over trade imbalances and the illegal opium trade.

Treaty of Nanjing

1842 treaty that ended the First Opium War, which ceded Hong Kong to Britain and opened several ports to foreign trade.

Extraterritoriality

Legal immunity granted to foreign nationals from the jurisdiction of local laws in a country.

Hong Xiuquan

Leader of the Taiping Rebellion, who claimed to be the brother of Jesus Christ and sought to establish a theocratic state.

Taiping Rebellion

A massive civil war in China from 1850 to 1864 led by Hong Xiuquan against the Qing Dynasty.

Boxer Rebellion

Anti-foreign and anti-colonial uprising in China from 1899 to 1901, aimed at expelling foreign influences.

Spheres of Influence

Areas where foreign powers have exclusive rights and privileges, particularly in trade.

Economic Imperialism

A form of imperialism where a foreign country exerts economic control over a nation rather than direct political control.

Open Door Policy

U.S. policy aimed at ensuring equal trading rights for all nations in China and preventing colonization.

Self-Strengthening Movement

A Chinese response to foreign threats during the late Qing Dynasty, seeking to adopt Western technology while maintaining Confucian values.

Chinese Exclusion Act

U.S. law passed in 1882 that prohibited all Chinese laborers from entering the country.

Puyi

The last Emperor of China, who ruled as a child and was later installed as a puppet emperor by the Japanese.

Sun Yat-Sen

Chinese revolutionary leader known as the father of modern China, who played a fundamental role in overthrowing the Qing Dynasty.