APES ap test review

superposition

The principle that any given rock layer is probably older than those above it and younger than those below it

continental crust

Extends from surface of Earth down to 20-30 miles. Continental crust (granite) is less dense then ocean crust (basalt).

oceanic crust

Extends down from the surface of the Earth to 7 miles. Crust is layered and very uniform. Composed of basalt.

mantle

Contains most of Earth's mass. Composed of iron, magnesium, aluminum, and silicon-oxygen compounds

core

Composed mostly of iron and is so hot that the outer core is molten. The inner core is under such extreme pressure that it remains solid.

Continental Drift Theory

1915- Alfred Wegener proposed that all present-day continents originally formed one landmass (Pangaea).

lithosphere

Lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) is divided into massive sections known as plates, which float and move on the asthenosphere.

transform boundaries

Occur where plates slide PAST each other.

San Andreas Fault

Found near the western coast of North America. Where the Pacific and North American plates move relative to each other.

divergent boundaries

Occur where two plates slide APART from each other with the space that was created being filled with molten magma from below.

Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Pacific Rise

Examples of oceanic divergent boundaries.

East African Great Rift Valley

Examples of areas of continental divergent boundaries

convergent boundaries

Occur where two plates slide TOWARD each other, commonly forming either a subduction zone or orogonic belt.

subduction zone

Occurs when a denser oceanic plate moves underneath (subducts) a less-dense continental plate.

e.g. Cascade Mountain range (includes Mount Saint Helens)

island arc

A curved chain of volcanic islands created when two oceanic plates converge.

e.g. Japan and the Aleutian Islands in Alaska

mountain range

Created when two continental plates collide.

e.g. Himalayas (Nepal and China)

earthquakes

Caused by friction and stress buildup from the sliding plates, a common feature along transform boundaries.

e.g. Haiti Earthquake 2010

seismic waves

energy released in the form of vibrations when there is abrupt movement on an existing fault; they move in all directions through the surround rock

P waves (Primary waves)

Are body waves that travel through the interior of the Earth.

S waves (Secondary waves)

Are produced when material moves either vertically or horizontally and travel only within the uppermost layers of Earth.

The severity of an earthquake depends on:

-The amount of potential energy that had been stored

-The distance the rock mass moved when the energy was released

-How far below the surface the movement occured

-The makeup of the rock material

liquefaction

The process by which an earthquake's violent movement suddenly turns loose soil into liquid mud.

tsunami

A series of waves created when a body of water is rapidly displaced usually be an earthquake.

e.g. Tōhoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami 2011 (also led to nuclear meltdown at Fukushima)

volcano

A mountain or hill having a crater or vent through which lava, rock fragments, hot vapor, and gas are being or have been erupted from the earth's crust

What do volcano eruptions do to our atmosphere?

-Release CO2, SO2, HCl

-debris and particulates can block sunlight, making a cooler climate

Factors that affect the amount of solar energy at the surface of the Earth:

-Earth's rotation (once every 24 hours)

-tilt of Earth's axis (23.5 degrees)

-revolution around the sun (once per year)

-closest to sun in winter, furthest in summer

O Horizon

Surface litter: leaves and partially decomposed organic debris. Thick in deciduous forests, thin in the tundra.

A Horizon

Topsoil: organic matter (humus), living organisms, inorganic minerals. Topsoil is very thick in grasslands.

E Horizon

Zone of leaching: dissolved and suspended materials move downward. In-between A and B horizon.

B Horizon

Subsoil: tends to be yellowish in color due to the accumulation of Fe, Al, humic compounds, and clay leached down from A and E horizons. Can be rich in nutrients in areas with lots of rainwater.

C Horizon

Weathered parent material: partially broken-down inorganic minerals

parent material

The rock and minerals from which the soil derives. Nature of parent rock can be native to the area or transported by wind, water, glaciers, etc.

clay

-very fine particles

-compacts easily

-forms large, dense clumps when wet

-low permeability to water, thus upper layers bcome waterlogged

gravel

-coarse particles

-consists of rock fragments

loam

-about equal mixtures of clay, sand, silt, and humus

-rich in nutrients

-holds water but does not become waterlogged

sand

-sedimentary material coarser than silt

-water flow through too quickly for most crops

-good for crops and plants requiring low amounts of water

silt

-sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles between the size of sand and clay

-easily transported by water

What color soil is most fertile?

a rich dark brown

waterlogging

saturation of soil with water resulting in a rise of the water table

problems of waterlogging

salty water envelops deep roots killing plants; lowers productivity; eventual destruction of plant life

solutions of waterlogging

switch to less water-demanding plants in susceptible areas; utilize conservation-tillage farming; plant waterlog-resistant plants; install drainage popes

salinization

a soil degradation process caused by repeated annual application of irrigation water in dry climates, which leads to the gradual accumulation of salts in the upper soil layers

problems of salinization

stunted crop growth; lower yield; eventual destruction of plant life

solutions of salinization

take land out of production for a while; install drainage pipes; flush soil with freshwater; planted halophytes (salt-loving plants) like barley, cotton, sugar, or wheat

desertification

occurs when the productive potential of soil, especially on arid or semiarid land, falls by 10% or more because of a combination of prolonged drought and human activities that reduce or degrade topsoil

problems of desertification

loss of native vegetation; increased wind erosion; salinization; drop in water table; reduced surface water supply

solutions of desertification

reduce overgrazing; reduce deforestation; reduce destructive forms of planting, irrigation, and mining; plant trees and grasses to hold soil

Soil erosion

is the movement of soil components, especially surface litter and topsoil, from one place to another by the actions of wind and water

What is most harmful human activity?

Agriculture has a greater harmful environmental impact than any other human activity

igneous

formed by cooling and classified by their silica content.

-majority of rocks in Earth's crust are igneous

-Intrusive igneous rocks solidify deep underground, cool slowly and have large-grained texture.

-Extrusive igneous rocks solidify on or near the surface, cool quickly, and have fine-grained smooth texture.

-Igneous rocks are broken down by weathering and water transport.

e.g. granite and basalt

metamorphic

formed by intense heat and pressure

e.g. diamond, marble asbestos, slate, anthracite coal

sedimentary

formed by piling and cementing of various materials over time in low-lying areas. Fossils form only in sedimentary rock.

e.g. conglomerate, breccia, sandstone

What seven primary compounds is the Earth's atmosphere composed of?

-nitrogen (78%)

-oxygen (21%)

-water vapor (0-4%)

-carbon dioxide (<<1%)

-methane (<<<1%)

-nitrous oxide (<<<1%)

-ozone (<<<1%)

Nitrogen (N2)

Fundamental nutrient for living organisms. Deposits on Earth through nitrogen fixation and reactions involving lightning and subsequent precipitation. Returns to the atmosphere through combustion of biomass and denitrification.

Oxygen (O2)

Oxygen molecules are produced through photosynthesis and are utilized in cellular respiration.

Water vapor (H2O)

Largest amounts occur near equator, over oceans, and in tropical regions. Areas where atmospheric water vapor can be low are polar areas and deserts.

-most voluminous greenhouse gas, cannot be added or reduced

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Volume of CO2 has increased about 25% in the last 300 years due to the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. CO2 is produced during cellular respiration and the decay of organic matter. It is a reactant in photosynthesis. CO2 is also a major greenhouse gas.

-stays in atmosphere 100 years

Methane (CH4)

Methane contributes to the greenhouse effect. Since 1750, methane has increased about 150% due to use of fossil fuels, coal mining, landfills, grazers, etc.

-stays in atmosphere 12 years