Psychology: Intelligence, Development, and Cognitive Theories

Intelligence

Ability to learn, reason, and solve problems.

General intelligence (g factor)

Overall mental ability that underlies specific skills.

Specific abilities (s factors)

Skills unique to particular tasks.

Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities

Seven abilities including verbal, numerical, spatial, memory, perceptual speed, reasoning, word fluency.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Eight or nine independent intelligences like linguistic, logical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

Three types: analytical, creative, practical intelligence.

Fluid intelligence

Ability to reason and solve new problems.

Crystallized intelligence

Knowledge and skills gained through experience.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient)

Score representing intelligence relative to age group.

Original IQ formula

IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100.

Modern IQ (WAIS)

Based on deviation from average score (mean = 100, SD = 15).

Binet-Simon Test

First test to measure mental age in children.

Stanford-Binet Test

Revised IQ test for all ages; measures verbal and nonverbal skills.

Army Alpha/Beta Tests

Group tests for literate (Alpha) and illiterate/non-English speakers (Beta) during WWI.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Measures adult IQ with verbal and performance subtests.

Standardization

Uniform test procedures and scoring.

Norms

Average scores used for comparison.

Reliability

Consistency of test results.

Validity

Degree to which a test measures what it claims.

Normal Distribution

Bell-shaped curve of IQ scores.

Intellectual Disability

IQ below 70 with limitations in adaptive functioning.

Giftedness

IQ above 130, high ability in one or more areas.

Flynn Effect

Gradual rise in average IQ scores over generations.

Nature vs. Nurture

Intelligence influenced by both genetics and environment.

Group Differences in IQ

Differences usually due to environmental factors.

Stereotype Threat

Fear of confirming negative group stereotypes, lowering performance.

Creativity

Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent Thinking

Generating many solutions to a problem.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down to one correct solution.

Learning Disability

Disorder interfering with learning despite normal intelligence.

Dyslexia

Difficulty reading or processing language.

Dysgraphia

Difficulty with writing and spelling.

Germinal Stage

Conception to 2 weeks; zygote forms and implants.

Embryonic Stage

2-8 weeks; major organs form; high vulnerability to teratogens.

Fetal Stage

8 weeks-birth; growth, movement, brain development.

Teratogen

Substance that harms prenatal development.

Infant Reflexes

Rooting, sucking, grasping, Moro, stepping.

Temperament

Infant's characteristic emotional style.

Easy temperament

Regular routines, adaptable, cheerful.

Difficult temperament

Irregular, intense, not easily adaptable.

Slow-to-warm-up temperament

Cautious, low activity, needs time to adjust.

Parenting Styles

Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Neglectful.

Harlow's Monkey Study

Infants prefer comfort over food for attachment.

Attachment Styles

Secure, Avoidant, Ambivalent/Resistant, Disorganized.

Piaget - Sensorimotor Stage

0-2 yrs; learn through senses; object permanence develops.

Piaget - Preoperational Stage

2-7 yrs; symbolic thought; egocentric; lacks conservation.

Piaget - Concrete Operational Stage

7-11 yrs; logical thinking about concrete objects; conservation.

Piaget - Formal Operational Stage

12+ yrs; abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

Vygotsky's Theory

Cognitive development through social interaction.

Zone of Proximal Development

Gap between what child can do alone vs. with help.

Scaffolding

Guidance provided within ZPD to support learning.

Kohlberg's Moral Development

Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional stages.

Gender

Socially defined roles and behaviors.

Sex

Biological traits.

Gender Role

Expected behaviors for a gender.

Gender Identity

Personal sense of being male, female, both, or neither.

Gender Schema Theory

Children form mental frameworks about gender roles.

Social Learning Theory (Gender)

Learn gender roles through observation and reinforcement.

Erikson - Adolescence

Identity vs. Role Confusion.

Erikson - Young Adulthood

Intimacy vs. Isolation.

Erikson - Middle Adulthood

Generativity vs. Stagnation.

Erikson - Late Adulthood

Integrity vs. Despair.

Puberty

Hormonal changes leading to sexual maturity.

Adolescence Social Changes

Peer influence increases; parent-child relationship adjusts.

Kubler-Ross's Stages of Grief

Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance.

Cognitive Aging

Fluid intelligence declines; crystallized remains stable.

Physical Aging

Reaction time slows, muscles weaken; decline not inevitable.

Social Psychology

Study of how people think about, influence, and relate to others.

Social Cognition

How we perceive, interpret, and remember information about others.

Social Influence

Ways others affect our behavior.

Situationism

Behavior shaped by external factors.

Dispositionism

Behavior caused by internal traits.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior to match the group.

Solomon Asch Study

People conformed to wrong group answers ~1/3 of the time.

Normative Social Influence

Conformity to gain approval or avoid rejection.

Informational Social Influence

Conformity because the group seems correct.

Obedience

Following authority commands.

Milgram Study

65% obeyed authority to deliver maximum shocks.

Zimbardo Prison Study

Situational roles can lead to abusive behavior.

Prosocial Behavior

Any act intended to help others.

Altruism

Helping with no expectation of reward.

Bystander Effect

Less likely to help when others are present.

Latane & Darley Decision Model

Notice, interpret, assume responsibility, know how, act.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in groups.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance with an audience.

Social Loafing

Less effort when working in groups.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony leads to poor decisions.

Attribution

Explaining causes of behavior (internal vs. external).

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimate traits, underestimate situation in others.

Self-Serving Bias

Success = internal, failure = external.

Actor-Observer Bias

Others' behavior = traits, our behavior = situation.

Just-World Hypothesis

Belief people get what they deserve.

Attitude

Learned evaluation of people, objects, or ideas.

Cognitive Dissonance

Tension from conflicting beliefs and actions.

Justification of Effort

Valuing something more if effort was required.

Prejudice

Negative attitude toward a group.

Stereotype

Overgeneralized belief about a group.

Discrimination

Unjust behavior toward a group.

In-Group/Out-Group

Favoring own group, perceiving others as similar.

Ethnocentrism

Belief one's group/culture is superior.