Biodegradation Exam 2

What kingdom are marine borers, beetles, termites, and other insects in?

Animal

Two types of marine borers (their phylums)

Molluscs (Mollusca) and Crustaceans (Anthropoda)

Two types of Molluscs

Shipworms (Teredinids) and Piddocks (Pholads)

Two types of Crustaceans

Gribbles (Limnoriids) and Pill Bugs (Sphaeromatids)

Where are Molluscs an issue?

ships, pilings, marine works, etc. However, only when mass colonization occurs

Characteristics of Molluscs

Aquatic animals. Salt/brackish water only (ie marine). Begin life small and free-swimming, are static in wood. Bury into wood and develop rasping shells on head. Discrete tunnels, avoid intruding into neighbors. Tail seals entrance hole, head burrows.

Characteristics of shipworms

AKA 'termites of the sea'. Worm-like body, up to 1-2m in length. Exit hole is 1-2mm. Incurrent and excurrent siphons. Inhabit wood, symbiotic bacteria degrade cellulose. Calcareous-lined tunnels! Can seal exit hole in times of low water. Head with rasping shell.

What is important for shipworms?

Water temperature! They are warm water organisms (though there are exceptions). CANNOT handle long exposure to freshwater. <20m deep in sea.

Characteristics of Piddocks

Grow to 5-8cm in length. CLAM-like. Exit hole is 5-10mm. Incurrent and excurrent siphons. Inhabit wood, rock, mud...DO NOT degrade cellulose. Tubed NOT lines with calcareous solid. Prefer deepwater seafloor. Some tolerate of brackish water. Less common than shipworms. Wood is not the only food source.

Characteristics of crustaceans

AQUATIC and require saltwater (marine). Segmented and motile, EVEN in wood. Can move from degraded to fresh wood samples. No rasping shells, just mandibles for burrowing. Live in UPPER regions of tidal range.

Characteristics of gribbles

Small, 2-4mm length, whitish-grey. Head, thorax, abdomen, 7 pairs of legs. Long narrow tunnels (1-3mm) parallel to surface, superficial decay and create an extensive network of galleries. Wood are broken down in gut, presumably by animal produces cellulases..?

What are gribbles sensitive to?

Salinity changes, 40-50% salinity only live for short period, but more resistant to pollutants than shipworms. Also to temperature, activity declines markedly when T<10 C. Found in tropical, temperate, and cold waters depending on species. EXCEPTION: seattle

Characteristics of Pill Bugs

10mm in length for mature adults. HEad, thorac, abdomen, 7 pairs of legs. Small tunnels (10-15mm long, 2-3mm diam), across grain and perpendicular to wood surface. Eat bacteria and phytoplankton, but wood digestion doubtful, although cellulases were found (don't know where they come from)

What are pill bugs restricted to?

Warm tropical and temperate waters. Especially tolerant of desiccation. Tolerant to changes in salinity (can survive in fresh water)

Prevention - marine borers

Site selection: high fresh water content, cool location.
Wood selection: greenheart, jarrah, high silica
Encapsulation: metal, concrete, plastic

Preservation - marine borers

Creosote and coal-tar (LOTS of it, penetrate deep)
CCA (copper-chromium-arsenic) still used here, often with creosote (BEST)
Copper-based (good if no leaching)

Ecosystem impact of emerald ash borer

After initial infestation, all ash trees are expected to die in an area with 10 years without control measures. 20% of urban forest is ash in Minnesota

Economic impacts of emerald ash borer

Removing and replacing all infested ash trees in urban areas of 25 states cost $20-60 billion

Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) spreading.

Spread quickly, 2.5-20 km per year. Can't use as firewood because it can cause the bug to spread.

Emerald Ash Borer managements:

Quarantines, insecticides, and biological control.

General taxonomic characteristics of wood-boring insects

Domain: Eukaryote
Kingdom: Animal
Phylum: Arthropod (having a hard joined exoskeleton consisting of a number of segments)
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera (Beetles), Isoptera (includes termites), Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps), lepidoptera (moths, butterflies), ephemeroptera (mayflies)

General Insect body structure

Antenna, head, thorax, abdomen, 6 legs - connect to thorax

Wood-boring insects biological features of importance

Obligate aerobes (require oxygen), Internal digestion (guts), physical degradation (mouthparts), Excrement (frass), can walk/fly (motile), have life stages, social behavior.

Beetles undergo ____ metamorphosis

Complete. Highly evolved wood-inhabiting insects (also bees)

Termites undergo ____ metamorphosis

Incomplete. Less-evolved wood-inhabiting insects

Wood-boring insects Nutrients assimilation

water, organic N and organic C source, minerals and vitamins. Wood breakdown and absorption in gut system

Elytra

Hardened front/outer wing in coleoptera (beetles)

Coleoptera general characteristics

largest insect order, ~40% of known insects. Damage in wood often caused by larval stage. create exit holes. Eggs->Larvae->pupae->adult. Larval guts contain cellulases = wood digestion

Types of coleoptera

anobiids, lyctids and bostrychids (powderpost beetles), cerambicids (longhorn beetles)

Furniture beetle characteristics

Anobiid. Eggs are visible to the eye, sticky. Larvae are 6mm long, 2-5yr stage. Adults thorax covers head. Prefer mostly timber, not furniture, and sapwood is preferred. They have ellipsoidal frass (gritty) and exit holes are smaller then ball point pen tip.

Deathwatch beetle characteristics

Anobiid. Eggs are visible to the eye, sticky. Larvae are 11mm long, 2-5yr stage. Adults thorax covers head. Prefer mostly oak, only after fungal decay exists (problem in old buildings). Exit holes are larger than ballpoint pen tip. Talc-like frass (not gritty). Tap-tapa during mating.

Ernobius beetle characteristics

Anobiid. Eggs are visible to eye, not sticky. Larvae are 5mm long, 1-2yr stage. Adults thorax covers head. Prefer bark+outer sapwood of softwoods only, less economic problem. Galleries are short 8-12mm. Adults are attracted to light. yellowish frass, dust like.

Lyctid Beetle characteristics

Eggs are large (1mm), long and thin. Larvae are 5mm long, 2-4yr stage. Adults thorax ver head. DOES NOT cover head. Prefers sapwood ONLY, although may emerge through heartwood. Need high sugar content (eggs laid in wood rays). Often on large-pored hardwoods. Silk, flour-like frass. Attracted to light

Bostrychid beetle characteristics

Eggs are large (1mm), long and thin. Larvae are 7mm long, 2-3yr stage. Adults thorax covers head. Prefer freshly felled timber, MC>50% - DO NOT reinfect dry timber. Need higher sugar content (eggs in wood rays). Larger exit holes (2.5-7mm) than lyctids (0.8-2mm)

Longhorn beetle characteristics

long antennae (often >15mm). Prefer softwoods, sapwood (generally). Can be a serious pest. Many are large (>20mm). Tunnels often parallel to the grain.

"House Longhorn Beetle" characteristics

Occur in seasoned timber (MC 25-50%) Pine, spruce and fir ONLY. Large yellowish eggs (2mm). Grey-white larvae (20-35 mm) = LARGE.

Ambrosia beetle characteristics

Attack standing trees and felled logs. Mutualism with sapstain fungus (tunnels are strained). Eat fungus, not wood (no frass)

Wood-boring weevils characteristics

Often confused with anobiid attack. Adults also cause wood damage. Upon inspection, adults and larvae are usually present (long snout).

Beetle treatment options

Removal of wood, heat, insectisides (surface and injections), fumigation (last ditch option)

Termites

-Social insects that eat lignocellulose (often wood)

-100 sp. damage buildings and timbers

-$5 billion in wood/home damage annually

Termite taxonomy and important families

Order Isoptera

1. Termitidae

2. Rhinotermitidae

3. Kalotermitidae

4. Termopsidae

Higher termites

Termitidae

bacteria, fungi + cellulases (no protists)

king and queen encased in royal cell

mound and tree-nest builder

Lower termites

Rhinotermitidae, kalotermitidae, termopsidae

Protists, fungi, bacteria + cellulases in gut

no royal cell

simple nesters

wood inhabiting

(builder’s terms) dry wood

soil tunneling

(builder’s terms) dampwood or subterranean

subterranean

termitidae and rhinotermitidae are…

drywood

kalotermitidae inhabit…

dampwood

termopsidae inhabit…

Eusocial

“true sociality”

1. cooperative brood care

2. overlapping generations (care for each other)

3. unequal reproduction within a colony

termites are the only insect group in which all 283 genera are this

hind gut symbiosis

termites digest symbiont ‘waste’ (acetic acid) but the symbiont gets food, shelter, and dispersal

termite caste system

1. workers - 80-90%

   1. not reproductive

   2. locate food and feed others

   3. dig tunnels, build tubes, repair nest

2. soldiers - ca. 5%

   1. not reproductive

   2. defend nest

3. reproductives

   1. primary: king and queen

   2. secondary reproducers (at nest margins)

termite life cycle

egg - “totipotent” larvae (can develop into any caste)

nymph (“ex-worker—becoming a reproductive)

alate (winged nymph=swarm…king/queen…success low)

how are termites different from ants?

1. mixed-age colony (overlapping generations)

2. creamy white coloration in some individuals

3. not narrow in middle of body

4. sheltertubes, swarms, etc.

termite swarm requirements

warmth, high humidity, no wind (usually occurs mid-day in MN)

Common Subterranean termites

- Most destructive termites in U.S.

-Largest problem in Southeast

-Require high moisture in wood

-Build shelter tubes (high H₂O, low predation)

-Workers creamy white (1/4 to 3/8 inches)

-Often line excavated galleries with excrement mix (waste lined tunnels)

Formosan Termite

- Introduced from China (non-native, invasive)

  - Southeastern U.S.

  - Common (10% utility poles in New Orleans affected!)

  - Aggressive (earlywood and latewood equally)

- Galleries kept clean

- Fill voids with excrement mix

- Damage often does not follow annual rings

Drywood Termites

-Form nests away from ground

-Can tolerate lower wood moisture than other termites

-Use ‘kick holes’ to eject frass = frass piles on floor

-Frass distinctly angular

-Tunnel just below wood surface leaving ‘veneer’

Dampwood Termites

-Common in Northwest US

-Require high moisture (and often fungal decay initially)

-Use ‘kick holes’ to eject frass = frass piles on floor

-Frass rounded

-Tunnel just below wood surface leaving ‘veneer’

preventative termite control

Use treated wood in ground contact

  (Formosan control requires higher levels)

  - Avoidance (no leaky gutters…)

  - Inspect often

  - Barriers

  -TermiMesh -fine stainless steel mesh

suppressive termite control

- Ingestible pesticides / hormone inhibitors (Purdue)

  (e.g. Hexaflumuron)

  - Bio-control (e.g. Metarhiziom anisopliae)

  - Fumigation or wood removal

benefits to termites

Decompiculture – Culturing organisms to degrade waste

  (bioconversion and biodetoxification = waste soil)

Termiculture – Using termites as food for poultry, etc.

  (waste wood animal biomass)

Prospecting – People have used termite nests to locate

  minerals, including gold

Adaptive radiation? – Termite-eating (termitophagy) may

  have been adaptive advantage for mammals post-

  dinosaurs

other wood-boring insects

Hymenopterans (ants, bees, wasps)

Lepidopterans (bufferflies and moths)

Ephemeropterans (mayflies)

hymenopteran qualities

sawflies, wood wasps, bees, ants

“complete metamorphosis”

small junction between thorax and abdomen. note different sized wings (hind and fore wing)

(hymen - membrane, ptera - wings)

hamuli

tiny hooks on the hind wing that link (like velcro) the hind wing to the fore wing (distinct to hymenoptera).

sawflies

(hymenoptera)

Usually on softwoods, on fence

Tunnels are 2-3 mm diameter, and usually short <10 mm long

More common in U.S. on west coast

Generally not a big issue in buildings

wood wasps (symphyta)

Genera Sirex and Urocerus, primarily

Bigger tunnels = bigger potential issue

1-3 year cycle

note yellow spots behind eyes and elongated ovipositor!

wood wasps in a weakened tree or lumber

1-7 eggs hatch in 3-4 weeks

Larvae initially tunnel in wood parallel with the grain

Initially in sapwood, moving to heartwood, and returning to sapwood to emerge

Tunnels 25-30 cm long

Larval feeding (associated with wood-decaying fungal growth) 1-3 years

Adult emerges by chewing through about 3/4 inch of wood, leaving a round exit hole 1/4 to 1/2 inch in diameter.

DO NOT reinfect dry timber

Most likely, infected (usually diseased tree wood) is used for fencepost or rough timber and emergence is the issue

carpenter bees and their life cycle

(hymenopteran)

doesn’t digest wood, shiny black abdomen.

Adults are Solitary, not social insects

Females bore into wood – at first perpendicular then parallel with the grain

Tunnels 1-2 cm diameter (10-15 cm long)

Brood cells along the way (capped cells w/ food + egg)

Tunnels act as shelter (nesting and overwintering)

leaf-cutter carpenter bees

only in very rotten wood. Family Apidae; outside of buildings; tunnels contain dead leaves

larger carpenter bees

Family Xylocopidae

Found throughout North America

Adults bore into dry wood – a PROBLEM

carpenter ants

(hymenopterans, family formicidae)

Most important North American species are in the Genus Camponotus

Attack living trees; A PROBLEM in wood and insulation

Earlywood (Springwood) preference leads to parallel galleries

Usually social insects

DO NOT EAT WOOD

carpenter ant nesting

Eggs, workers, and reproductives (king/queen) start by building a Primary Nest, usually in a tree with heartrot

carpenter ant cycles/nesting characteristics

Egg → worker → reproductive → winged adults → new colony

All sizes/types may be present at once

Workers 6 - 13 mm long (Queen >25mm (1”) long)

Spring and early summer, winged adults emerge

Bore parallel to the grain in wood (in styrofoam, etc. too!)

Eat honeydew, etc., NOT wood

Primary nests in trees but satellite nests in houses

Forage at night, primarily

Follow paths to food sources (pheromones + visual cues)

King and Queen in primary nest (secondary reproductives in satellite nests)

Galleries are not lined with excrement like most termites

carpenter ant control

Liquid sprays/aerosols -  Direct toxicity (many brands)

Dusts – Dry applications for cracks, etc.

Baits – Slow-release insecticides taken back to colony

Primary nest removal – Tree removal, insecticides (Track them in a line at night with a flashlight)

Contributing factors – Tree proximity to house, etc.

ephemeropterans - mayflies

Aquatic wood – larvae bore into wood for shelter. Can be a serious problem in wooden boats, but rare

lepidopterans - butterflies and moths

Goat moths – larvae bore wood – usually only trees/shrubs not building material – may emerge if bad kiln drying

Wood leopard moths – same as goat moths