APUSH Chapter 18: The Victorians Make the Modern (1880-1917)

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

A landmark Supreme Court ruling that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation by establishing the "separate but equal" doctrine. The Court found that as long as facilities were equal, they did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment, a decision that provided a national stamp of approval for Jim Crow laws until it was overturned in 1954.

Jim Crow

A system of state and local laws, named after a minstrel show character, that mandated racial segregation in virtually all public and commercial spaces, including schools, trains, and restaurants. These laws legally enforced a hierarchy of white supremacy and were validated by the Plessy v. Ferguson decision, which falsely claimed that segregated facilities were equal.

Atlanta Compromise (1895)

A speech delivered by Booker T. Washington in which he argued that African Americans should focus on economic self-help and hard work rather than immediate social equality or political rights. Washington suggested that whites would eventually respect black economic success, an approach that was later criticized by a younger generation of leaders for accommodating white racism and segregation.

Negro Leagues

Professional all-black baseball leagues formed in the early 1900s after African American players were barred from white major league teams. These leagues became a vital source of race pride and a showcase for black manhood and athletic talent during an era of stark discrimination, thriving until the desegregation of baseball after World War II.

Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA)

Founded in 1851, it became a major promoter of "muscular Christianity," combining evangelical Protestantism with athletic facilities to make men "clean and strong". Industrial leaders often sponsored YMCAs to foster a loyal, disciplined workforce and discourage labor unrest, leading the organization to eventually bridge the gap between middle-class and working-class customs.

Maternalism

An intermediate step between traditional domesticity and modern women’s equality, this ideology justified women’s involvement in social reform by appealing to their "special role" as mothers. By claiming that the community was an extension of the home, maternalists built powerful movements to address issues like urban poverty, pollution, and the goals of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU).

Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)

Founded in 1874 and led by Frances Willard, the WCTU became the era's largest grassroots organization by framing the prohibition of alcohol as a means of "Home Protection" for abused wives and children. Under Willard’s "Do Everything" motto, the group expanded its activism into soup kitchens, prisons, and advocacy for women's suffrage and labor laws.

National Association of Colored Women

Created in 1896, this organization allowed African American women to pursue reform work—such as caring for orphans and advocating for temperance—that was often excluded from white women's clubs. It represented a commitment to social uplift and community service while navigating the dual challenges of racial and gender discrimination.

National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)

The primary national organization formed in 1890 to coordinate the movement for women's voting rights. Building on the momentum of groups like the WCTU, NAWSA represented the formal political push for suffrage that had emerged during Reconstruction and gained significant ground during the Progressive Era.

Feminism

A movement that moved beyond the suffrage goals of NAWSA to advocate for women’s full political, economic, and social equality. Emerging more clearly in the early 20th century, it challenged the Victorian ethos and the limitations of maternalism by arguing that women should have the same autonomy and opportunities as men.

Liberal Arts

A modernized college curriculum, pioneered by Harvard President Charles W. Eliot, that moved away from traditional Greek and Latin in favor of electives like French, German, and sciences. This approach aimed to develop a student's "individual reality and creative power," reflecting the changing needs of a professionalizing industrial economy.

Comstock Act (1873)

A federal law that prohibited the circulation of "obscene" materials through the U.S. mail, including information about birth control and sex. Named after Anthony Comstock, the act represented a Victorian-era effort to maintain public morality even as consumer culture and new ideas about family life were beginning to shift.

Sierra Club / National Park Service

Founded in 1892 by John Muir, the Sierra Club was dedicated to preserving and enjoying America's great mountains. This preservationist movement, along with a growing national zest for outdoor recreation, eventually led to the 1916 creation of the National Park Service to provide comprehensive oversight of the country's expanding system of parks and monuments.

Social Darwinism

An application of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection to human society, suggesting that competition was a law of nature and that the "survival of the fittest" explained the success of the wealthy and the failure of the poor. This ideology was used by some to oppose social reform, though it was countered by thinkers like Lester Frank Ward, who argued that human intelligence should be used to improve society.

Eugenics

A pseudo-scientific movement influenced by distorted views of natural selection that sought to "improve" the human race by encouraging the breeding of "fit" individuals and restricting the reproduction of those deemed "unfit". This movement often targeted immigrants and people of color, reflecting the deep-seated racial prejudices of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Realism / Modernism

Realism was an artistic and literary movement that sought to depict life exactly as it was, often focusing on the harsh realities of industrial society. Modernism followed by rejecting traditional rules to experiment with new forms—such as the abstract geometric shapes of Cubism seen in the 1913 Armory Show—challenging conventional Victorian standards of beauty and order.

Social Gospel

A religious movement that emerged among Protestants who believed that the church had a duty to address social problems like poverty, unsafe working conditions, and urban decay. It stood in contrast to Fundamentalism by focusing on achieving "earthly justice" as a core component of religious faith.

Fundamentalism (1910s)

A Protestant movement that arose in reaction to modernism and the Social Gospel, emphasizing the literal and "fundamental" truth of the Bible. Fundamentalists focused on heavenly redemption and personal salvation through revival meetings rather than earthly social reform, as seen in the popular preaching of former baseball player Billy Sunday.