gyatt

age of revolution

Period of political upheaval beginning roughly with the American Revolution in 1775 and continuing through the French Revolution of 1789 and other movements for change up to 1848

population revolution

Huge growth in population in western Europe beginning about 1730; prelude to industrialization

proto-industrialization

Preliminary shift away from an agricultural economy; workers became full- or part-time producers who worked at home in a capitalist system in which materials, work, orders, and sales depended on urban merchants; prelude to the Industrial Revolution

American Revolution

Rebellion of the British American Atlantic seaboard colonies; ended with the formation of the independent United States

French Revolution

Overthrow of the Bourbon monarchy through a revolution beginning in 1789; created a republic and eventually ended with Napoleon's French empire; the source of many liberal movements and constitutions in Europe

Louis XVI

Bourbon ruler of France who was executed during the radical phase of the French Revolution

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

Adopted during the French Revolution; proclaimed the equality of French citizens; became a source document for later liberal movements

guillotine

Introduced as a method of "humane" execution; used during the French Revolution against thousands of individuals, especially during the Reign of Terror

nationalism

European 19th-century viewpoint; often allied with other "isms"; urged the importance of national unity; valued a collective identity based on ethnic origins

Napoleon Bonaparte

Army officer who rose in rank during the wars of the French Revolution; ended the democratic phase of the revolution; became emperor; deposed and exiled in 1815

Congress of Vienna

Met in 1815 after the defeat of France to restore the European balance of power

conservative

Political viewpoint with origins in western Europe during the 19th century; opposed revolutionary goals; advocated restoration of monarchy and defense of church

liberal

Political ideology that flourished in 19th-century western Europe; stressed limited state interference in private life, representation of the people in government; urged importance of constitutional rule and parliaments

radical

Followers of a 19th-century Western European political emphasis; advocated broader voting rights than liberals did; urged reforms favoring the lower classes

Greek Revolution

Rebellion of the Greeks against the Ottoman Empire in 1820; a key step in the disintegration of the Turkish Balkan Empire

Reform Bill of 1832

British legislation that extended the vote to most male members of the middle class

Chartist movement

Attempt by artisans and workers in Britain to gain the vote during the 1840s; demands for reform beyond the Reform Bill of 1832 were incorporated into a series of petitions; movement failed

demographic transition

Dramatic new population pattern involving low birth and infant death rates, slower population growth, new age structure and life expectancy. First emerged in the West by the late nineteenth century, later spread globally

Louis Pasteur

Discoverer of germs and of the purifying process named after him

American Civil War (1861-1865)

Fought to prevent secession of the southern states; the first war to incorporate the products and techniques of the Industrial Revolution; resulted in the abolition of slavery and the reunification of the United States

transformismo

Political system in Italy that allied conservatives and liberals in support of the status quo

social question

Issues relating to workers and women in western Europe during the Industrial Revolution; became more critical than constitutional issues after 1870

socialism

Political ideology in 19th-century Europe; attacked private property in the name of equality; wanted state control of the means of production and an end to the capitalistic exploitation of the working class

Karl Marx

German socialist who saw history as a class struggle between groups out of power and those controlling the means of production; preached the inevitability of social revolution and the creation of a proletarian dictatorship

revisionism

Socialist thought that disagreed with Marx's formulation; believed that social and economic progress could be achieved through existing political institutions

feminist movements

Sought legal and economic gains for women, among them equal access to professions and higher education; came to concentrate on the right to vote; won initial support from middle-class women

mass leisure culture

An aspect of the later Industrial Revolution; decreased time at work and offered opportunities for new forms of leisure time, such as vacation trips and team sports

Charles Darwin

Biologist who developed the theory of evolution of species; argued that all living forms evolved through the successful ability to adapt in a struggle for survival

Albert Einstein

Formulated mathematical theories to explain the behavior of planetary motion and the movement of electrical particles; in about 1900, issued the theory of relativity

Romanticism

19th-century western European artistic and literary movement; held that emotion and impression, not reason, were the keys to the mysteries of human experience and nature; sought to portray passions, not calm reflection

Triple Alliance

Alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy at the end of the 19th century; part of the European balance of power system before World War I

Triple Entente

Agreement among Britain, Russia, and France in 1907; part of the European balance of power system before World War I

Balkan nationalism

Movements to create independent states and reunite ethnic groups in the Balkans; provoked crises within the European alliance system that ended with the outbreak of World War I

Mataram

Controlled most of interior Java in the 17th century; weakness of the state after the 1670s allowed the Dutch to expand their control over all of Java

sepoys

Indian troops, trained in European style, serving the French and British

British Raj

The British political establishment in India

Plassey (1757)

Battle between the troops of the British East India Company and an Indian army under Siraj-ud-daula, ruler of Bengal; British victory gave them control of Northeast India

Robert Clive

Architect of British victory at Plassey; established foundations of the Raj in northern India

Presidencies

Three districts that comprised the bulk of British-ruled territories in India during the early 19th century; capitals at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay

Princely States

Ruled by Indian princes allied with the Raj; agents of the East India Company were stationed at their courts to ensure loyalty

nabobs

Name given to Britons who went to India to make fortunes through graft and exploitation; returned to Britain to live richly

Lord Charles Cornwallis

British official who reformed East India Company corruption during the 1790s

sati

The Hindu practice of burning a widow on the funeral pyre of her deceased husband

Ram Mohun Roy

Western educated Indian leader, early 19th century; cooperated with British to outlaw sati

Isandhlwana (1879)

Zulu defeat of a British army; one of the few indigenous victories over 19th-century European armies

tropical dependencies

Western European possessions in Africa, Asia, and the South Pacific where small numbers of Europeans ruled large indigenous populations

settlement colonies

Colonies, such as those in South Africa, New Zealand, Algeria, Kenya, and Hawaii, where minority European populations lived among majority indigenous peoples

White Dominions

A type of settlement colony, such as those in North America and Australia, where European settlers made up the majority of the population

white racial supremacy

Belief in the inherent superiority of whites over the rest of humanity; peaked in the period before World War I

Natal

British colony in South Africa; developed after Boer trek north from Cape Colony; major commercial outpost at Durban

Boer Republics

Independent states—Orange Free State and Transvaal—established during the 1850s in the South African interior by Afrikaners

Cecil Rhodes

British entrepreneur in South Africa; manipulated political situation to gain entry to the diamonds and gold discovered in the Boer republics

Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902)

Fought between the British and Afrikaners; British victory and postwar policies left the African population of South Africa under Afrikaner control

Captain James Cook

His voyages to Hawaii from 1777 to 1779 opened the islands to the West

Toussaint L'Overture

Leader of the slave rebellion on the French island of St. Domingue in 1791; led to the creation of the independent republic of Haiti in 1804

Father Miguel de Hidalgo

Mexican priest who established an independence movement among Indians and mestizos in 1810; after early victories he was captured and executed

Augustín Iturbide

Conservative Creole officer in the Mexican army who joined the independence movement; made emperor in 1821

Simon Bolívar

Creole military officer in northern South America; won victories in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador between 1817 and 1822 that led to the independent state of Gran Colombia

Gran Colombia

Existed as an independent state until 1830 when Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador became separate independent nations

José de San Martín

Leader of movements in Rio de la Plata that led to the independence of the United Republic of Rio de la Plata by 1816; later led independence movements in Chile and Peru

João VI

Portuguese monarch who fled the French to establish his court in Brazil from 1808 to 1820; Rio de Janeiro became the real capital of the Portuguese empire

Pedro I

Son and successor of João VI in Brazil; aided in the declaration of Brazilian independence in 1822 and became constitutional emperor

Andrés Santa Cruz

Mestizo general who established a union between independent Peru and Bolivia between 1829 and 1839

caudillos

Leaders in independent Latin America who dominated local areas by force in defiance of national policies; sometimes seized the national government

centralists

Latin American politicians who favored strong, centralized national governments with broad powers; often supported by conservative politicians

federalists

Latin American politicians who favored regional governments rather than centralized administrations; often supported by liberal politicians

Juan Manuel de Rosas

Federalist leader in Buenos Aires; took power in 1831; commanded loyalty of gauchos; restored local autonomy

General Antonio López de Santa Anna

Mexican general who seized power after the collapse of the Mexican republic in 1835

Monroe Doctrine

United States declaration of 1823, which stated that any attempt by a European country to colonize the Americas would be considered an unfriendly act

guano

Bird droppings used as fertilizer; a major Peruvian export between 1850 and 1880

positivism

A philosophy based on the ideas of Auguste Comte; stressed observation and scientific approaches to the problems of society

manifest destiny

Belief that the United States was destined to rule from the Atlantic to the Pacific

Mexican-American War

Fought between Mexico and the United States from 1846 to 1848; led to devastating defeat of Mexican forces and loss of about one-half of Mexico's national territory to the United States

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848)

Treaty between the United States and Mexico; Mexico lost one-half of national territory

Benito Juárez

Indian lawyer and politician who led a liberal revolution against Santa Anna; defeated by the French, who made Maximilian emperor; returned to power from 1867 to 1872

La Reforma

Name of Juárez's liberal revolution

Maximilian von Habsburg

Austrian archduke proclaimed emperor of Mexico as a result of French intervention in 1862; after the French withdrawal he was executed in 1867

Porfirio Díaz

Military general who served as authoritarian president of Mexico most years between 1876 and 1911, when he was toppled by revolution

Argentine Republic

Replaced state of Buenos Aires in 1862 as a result of a compromise between centralists and federalists

Domingo F. Sarmiento

Liberal politician and president of the Argentine Republic; author of Facundo, a critique of caudillo politics; increased international trade and launched reforms in education and transportation

fazendas

Coffee estates that spread into the Brazilian interior between 1840 and 1860; caused intensification of slavery

cientificos

Advisors to Díaz's government who were influenced strongly by positivist ideas

Spanish American War

Fought between Spain and the United States beginning in 1898; resulted in annexation of Puerto Rico and the Philippines; permitted American intervention in the Caribbean

Panama Canal

The United States supported an independence movement in Panama, then part of Colombia, in return for the exclusive rights for a canal across the Panamanian isthmus

ayan

The wealthy landed elite that emerged in the early decades of Abbasid rule

Selim II

Ottoman sultan (1789-1807); attempted to improve administrative efficiency and build a new army and navy; assassinated by Janissaries

Mahmud II

19th Ottoman sultan; built a private, professional army; crushed the Janissaries and initiated reforms based on Western precedents

Tanzimat reforms

Western-style reforms within the Ottoman Empire between 1839 and 1876; included a European-influenced constitution in 1876

Abdul Hamid

Ottoman sultan (1878-1908) who tried to return to despotic absolutism; nullified constitution and restricted civil liberties

Ottoman Society for Union and Progress

Organization of political agitators in opposition to the rule of Abdul Harmid; all called "Young Turks"; desired to restore 1876 constitution

Murad

(1790-1820) Head of coalition of Mamluk rulers in Egypt; opposed Napoleonic invasion of Egypt and suffered devastating defeat; failure destroyed Mamluk government in Egypt and revealed vulnerability of Muslim core

Muhammad Ali

Controlled Egypt by 1811; began a modernization process based on Western models but failed to greatly change Egypt; died in 1848

khedives

Descendants of Muhammad Ali in Egypt after 1867; formal rulers of Egypt despite French and English intervention until overthrown by military coup in 1952

Suez Canal

Built to link the Mediterranean and Red Seas; opened in 1869; British later occupied Egypt to safeguard their financial and strategic interests

Jamal-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh

Muslim thinkers in Egypt during the latter part of the 19th century; stressed the need for adoption of Western scientific learning and technology and the importance of rational inquiry within Islam

Ahmad Arabi

Student of Muhammad Abduh; led a revolt in 1882 against the Egyptian government; forced the khedive to call in British aid

Khartoum

River town that was administrative center of Egyptian authority in Sudan

Muhammad Ahmad

Head of a Sudanic Sufi brotherhood; claimed descent from prophet Muhammad; proclaimed both Egyptians and British as infidels; launched revolt to purge Islam of impurities; took Khartoum in 1883; also known as the Mahdi

Mahdi

Muhammad Achmad, the leader of a Sudanic Sufi brotherhood; began a holy war against the Egyptians and British and founded a state in the Sudan

Khalifa Abdallahi

Successor of the Mahdi; defeated and killed by British General Kitchener in 1898