Time Period One

Chapter 4 Key Terms

individualism

social and political philosophy that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual and prioritizes personal freedom and self-reliance. This concept encourages people to think for themselves and pursue their own interests, often seen as a reaction against collectivist ideologies and traditions. central to ideas about rights and governments, thinkers/artists emphasized this in art,literature, and philosophy during the renaissance

city-states

independent sovereign entities, consist of a city and its surrounding territory. characterized by their political autonomy, economic prosperity, and cultural significance, often acting as centers of trade, art, and intellectual activity. played a crucial role in fostering the revival of classical knowledge and the flourishing of the arts that defined this vibrant period. Ex. Florence, Venice , Milan

northern Renaissance

cultural and artistic movement, Northern Europe, late 15th and 16th centuries, It emphasized the use of oil painting, detailed realism, and a focus on everyday life, often incorporating religious themes and humanist ideas that stemmed from classical antiquity, similar to those seen in the Italian Renaissance.

Protestant reformation

religious movement,16th century, wanted to reform the practices and beliefs of the Catholic Church, lead to the establishment of various Protestant denominations. driven by widespread discontent with corruption within the Church, the sale of indulgences, and differing theological views, challenged the authority of the papacy and altered the religious landscape of Europe. significant political, social, and economic implications, laying the groundwork for subsequent conflicts during the Wars of Religion.

Christian Humanists

movement during the Renaissance, emphasizing the importance of human values and ethics grounded in Christian teachings. This philosophy sought to reconcile classical humanism, which celebrated human potential and achievements, with a focus on religious faith and moral integrity. Promoted the study of classical texts and the bible.

Desiderius Erasmus

Dutch philosopher and humanists in the Northern Renaissance who took a critical approach to religious texts. He emphasized education and moral philosophy. Wrote “In Praise of Folly” which exploded the corruption of the church. Born in 1466.

Sir Thomas More

16th-century English lawyer, philosopher, and statesman who is best known for his book "Utopia" that is about an Uptopian society. He served as Lord Chancellor under King Henry VIII and was executed for refusing to accept the king's supremacy over the Catholic Church. North renaissance

Albrecht Durer

1471-1528, German painter, printmaker, and theorist from the Northern Renaissance, known for his high-quality woodcuts and engravings. He is often credited with bringing the techniques of Italian Renaissance art to Northern Europe, which significantly influenced the development of art in the region. North renaissance

Geoggrey Chaucer

An English poet and author of 'The Canterbury Tales,' which provided aspects of 14th-century English Society and social classes, often referred to as the Father of English literature for his contributions to the development of the English language and poetry. North reniassance

Boccaccion

Italian writer, poet, and scholar from the 14th century, best known for his work 'The Decameron', a collection of novellas that provides insight into life during the Black Death. His writings reflect the social and cultural changes occurring in Europe at the time, particularly in relation to craft production and the impact of the plague on society. North renaissance

Elizabethnan Renaissance

period during Queen Elizabeth I's reign from 1558 to 1603, marked by a flourishing of English culture, particularly in literature and the arts. This time is often celebrated for its advancements in drama, exploration, and the establishment of England as a significant power in Europe. Shakespeare,Christopher Marlowe

Christopher Marlowe

renowned English playwright and poet of the late 16th century, often considered a precursor to William Shakespeare. His works contributed significantly to the development of Elizabethan drama, showcasing themes of ambition, power, and the human condition. innovative use of blank verse and complex characters helped shape the literary landscape of the English Renaissance.

Johannes Gutenberg, the printing press

German inventor , movable type printing to Europe in the 15th century, which revolutionized the production of books and facilitated the spread of knowledge. laid the groundwork for the mass communication that would define the Renaissance and the Reformation, influencing education, religion, and society as a whole.

Humanism

intellectual movement that emerged during the Renaissance, emphasizing the value of human beings, individual potential, and the study of classical texts. It marked a shift away from medieval scholasticism and focused on the humanities, including literature, philosophy, and history, ultimately influencing various aspects of art, education, and thought.

Francesco Petrarch

'Father of Humanism,' Italian poet/ scholar who played a crucial role in the development of Renaissance thought and literature. importance of classical antiquity and the study of ancient texts, inspired a cultural revival in Italy -14th century exploration of themes such as love, nature, and human emotion, promoted a more individualistic and secular perspective. Canzoinere,poems for Laura

Pico della Mirandola

influential Italian philosopher and scholar,Renaissance, 'Oration on the Dignity of Man.' emphasized human potential and the importance of free will, reflecting the humanist ideals of the time. contributed to individualism and the capacity for personal growth and enlightenment, marking a significant shift in thought from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance

Lorenzo Valla

Italian humanist, scholar, and rhetorician,15th century, critical approach to texts and his contributions to the study of classical literature. emphasis on humanism, critical thinking, and the pursuit of knowledge based on classical texts. 'On the False Donation of Constantine,' challenged the authenticity of a document that had been used to justify papal authority, highlighting the importance of textual analysis and historical context in understanding documents.

Leonardo Bruni

influential Italian humanist, historian, and statesman during the early Renaissance, known for his writings that emphasized the importance of civic humanism. His works connected classical literature to contemporary political and social issues, showcasing how the revival of classical thought could inspire active citizenship and ethical governance. translated Greek works into Latin

Filippo Brunelleschi

prominent Italian architect and engineer of the early Renaissance, dome of the Florence Cathedral. His designs and architectural theories helped define Renaissance architecture and marked a significant departure from the Gothic style, emphasizing symmetry, proportion, and the use of classical elements.

fresco

technique of mural painting on freshly laid wet plaster, allowing the colors to become an integral part of the wall itself as it dries. one of the most popular forms of artistic expression during the Renaissance, reflecting the movement's emphasis on realism, human emotion, and classical themes.

chiaroscuro

artistic technique that uses strong contrasts between light and dark to create a sense of volume and three-dimensionality in painting. emphasizes the interplay of light and shadow, giving depth and realism to figures and objects, which became particularly important in the styles that emerged during the late Renaissance and continued into the Baroque period.

mannerism

artistic style that emerged in the late Renaissance, exaggerated proportions, unusual color schemes, and a sense of tension and instability. departure from the harmony and balance typical of earlier Renaissance art, embracing complexity and emotional expressiveness instead. This style often serves as a bridge between the idealism of the High Renaissance and the dynamic energy of Baroque art.

Leonardo da Vinci

quintessential Renaissance artist, inventor, and polymath, renowned for his masterpieces such as 'The Last Supper' and 'Mona Lisa.'

Raphael

master painter and architect of the High Renaissance, harmonious compositions and clarity of form. epitomizes the ideals of beauty and balance that defined the artistic principles of the period, making significant contributions to the development of Western art through his innovative techniques and portrayals of human emotion. school of Athens

Michelangelo

Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance, embody the ideals of humanism and artistic excellence.sculpture and painting, showcase a deep understanding of anatomy and a passion for portraying human emotion, making him one of the most celebrated figures of the Italian Renaissance. Sistene chapel and the statue of david

Julius II

head of the Catholic Church from 1503 to 1513, patronage of the arts and his ambitious political and military endeavors. 'Warrior Pope' due to his active involvement in military campaigns to secure the Papal States and protect church interests. His support for artists like Michelangelo and Raphael transformed Rome into a cultural hub during this vibrant period.

John Calvin

French theologian and reformer in the Protestant Reformation known for his influential work in developing the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism. predestination, the sovereignty of God, and the importance of a disciplined Christian life greatly shaped the development of Protestant thought and had significant impacts on various aspects of European society and politics.

Calvinism

branch of Protestantism that follows the theological teachings of John Calvin, emphasizing predestination, the sovereignty of God, and the authority of scripture. It significantly influenced the development of various religious and political movements across Europe, shaping societies in both religious and secular contexts.

Huguenots

French Protestants, primarily Calvinists, who faced severe persecution in predominantly Catholic France during the 16th and 17th centuries. struggles for religious freedom and civil rights contributed to significant conflicts in France and helped shape the landscape of religious and political tensions during the Reformation and Wars of Religion.

The protestant reformation

16th century that sought to reform the practices and beliefs of the Catholic Church, ultimately leading to the establishment of various Protestant denominations. This movement was driven by widespread discontent with corruption within the Church, the sale of indulgences, and differing theological views, challenging the authority of the papacy and altering the religious landscape of Europe.

The Catholic reformation

was the Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, seeking both to reform internal corruption and reaffirm traditional doctrines. Beginning in the mid-16th century, the movement focused on addressing criticisms of the Church, strengthening its institutions, and countering the spread of Protestantism.

Council of Trent

1545-1563, convened by Pope Paul III, defined catholic doctrine, reaffirming beliefs over the authority of the pope, addressed corruption, and improve religious education. Reinforced Catholic traditions while implementing reforms that strengthened Church authority and administration

Society of Jesus (Jesuit)

founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola, became one of the most influential forces of the Catholic Reformation, focused on education,missionary work, political and diplomatic influence and emphasized intellectual training and loyalty to the pope,1540

Index of prohibited books

Established by Pope Paul IV, listed works considered dangerous to Catholic faith and morals. It included writings by Protestant reformers, scientific works (such as those by Galileo), and other texts challenging Church teachings. While officially abolished in 1966, the Index symbolized the Catholic Church’s efforts to control religious thought and prevent heresy.

Roman inquisition

a system of tribunals established by the Catholic Church ,16th century to combat heresy and maintain Catholic doctrine. Catholic Reformation, aiming to address and counter the spread of Protestantism and other dissenting movements. By enforcing religious conformity and punishing heretical beliefs, played a significant role in shaping the Church's response to the challenges posed by the Reformation.

baroque

highly decorative and theatrical style of art, architecture, and music that emerged in Europe during the late 16th century and lasted into the early 18th century. dramatic expression, intricate details, and a sense of movement, sought to evoke emotional responses and convey religious themes

Ignatius Loyola

Spanish priest and theologian who founded the the Jesuits, in the 16th century. critical role in the Catholic Reformation by emphasizing education, missionary work, and the importance of spiritual discipline. had a lasting impact on the Catholic Church and its approach to reforming itself during a time of significant religious upheaval.

Henry Tudor/VII

First monarch in the Tudor Dynasty , 1485 to 1509,characterized by centralization of power for monarchy, and stabilization efforts after the Wars of the Roses. Emphasized the royal authority and reduced the influence of the nobility which marked the beginning of a new era in English history.

Tudor Dynasty

a royal house that ruled England from 1485 to 1603, beginning with Henry VII and ending with Elizabeth I. It played a crucial role in shaping the monarchy during a time of significant political and social change, marking the transition from medieval to early modern England. patronage of art

Queen Elizabeth

Queen of England from 1558 until her death in 1603, leadership and the Elizabethan Era, a period marked by English cultural flourishing and expansion. often associated with the consolidation of Protestantism, significant political stability, and military victories, notably against Spain. Never married.

Niccolo Machiavelli

Italian diplomat, philosopher, and historian of the Renaissance period, best known for his political treatise 'The Prince.' His ideas on power, statecraft, and human nature have made him a central figure in modern political thought, influencing the development of new monarchies and political realism during a time of significant change in Europe.

Ferdinand of Aragon

late 15th and early 16th centuries, role in the unification of Spain and the establishment of a powerful centralized monarchy. He ruled alongside his wife, Isabella I of Castile, and their marriage laid the foundation for the modern Spanish state, which significantly influenced European politics during the New Monarchies period.

Isabella of Castile

Queen of Castile and León from 1474 until 1504. known for her role in the unification of Spain and for sponsoring Christopher Columbus's 1492 expedition, which led to the discovery of the Americas. significant shift toward centralized power in Spain, aligning with the trends of new monarchies that emerged in Europe during the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

Spanish inquisition

religious tribunal established in 1478 by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile aimed at maintaining Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms. severe methods, targeting converts from Judaism and Islam, as well as other groups considered heretical, playing a significant role in shaping the religious and political landscape of Spain during the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor from 1519 to 1556 and King of Spain from 1516, representing one of the most significant political figures in European history during the 16th century. He ruled over an extensive empire that included vast territories in Europe and the Americas, which made him a central figure during critical conflicts such as the Protestant Reformation and the Wars of Religion.

Philip II of spain

king who ruled from 1556 to 1598, known for his strong centralized government and efforts to expand Spanish influence across Europe and the Americas. His reign marked a significant period of absolutism, where he exercised immense power while navigating challenges from rival nations and religious conflicts.

Spanish Armanda

large fleet sent by Spain in 1588 with the intention of invading England and overthrowing Queen Elizabeth I. This event marked a significant moment in the struggle for European dominance between Catholic Spain and Protestant England, illustrating the broader religious and political conflicts of the 16th and 17th centuries.

Cervantes

Spanish writer, best known for his work 'Don Quixote,' that is a reflection on the social changes during the Northern Renaissance and the emergence of new monarchies which is considered one of the greatest literary works and a precursor to the modern novel.

El Greco

Greek painter, sculptor, and architect active in Spain during the late Renaissance. His unique style blends elements of Mannerism with early Baroque influences, characterized by elongated figures, vibrant colors, and dramatic lighting, making him a pivotal figure in the transition from Mannerism to Baroque art.

Prince Henry the Navigator

Portuguese royal who played a crucial role in the early phases of the Age of Discovery during the 15th century. patronage of exploratory voyages along the West African coast, which significantly advanced maritime knowledge and established trade routes that would later enhance European expansion into Africa and the Americas.

Cape of Good Hope

rocky headland located at the southern tip of the African continent, historically significant as a key point in maritime trade routes during the Age of Exploration. It served as a critical passage for European explorers seeking to establish direct sea routes to India and the East Indies, marking a significant milestone in the Age of Discovery.

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer who is best known for being the first European to reach India by sea, linking Europe and Asia via the ocean route. His successful voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498 opened up a new era of global trade and marked a significant milestone in the Age of Exploration, paving the way for European powers to establish colonial empires in Asia.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer and navigator whose voyages across the Atlantic Ocean in the late 15th century led to the European awareness of the American continents. His expeditions, sponsored by Spain, marked the beginning of the Age of Exploration and established lasting European contact with the Americas, significantly impacting global trade and culture.

Ferdinand Magellan

Portuguese explorer known for leading the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe from 1519 to 1522. His voyage proved that the Earth is round and connected through oceans, marking a pivotal moment in the Age of Exploration by expanding European knowledge of the world and establishing new maritime routes.

Hernan Cortes

Spanish conquistador known for leading the expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century. resulted in the significant expansion of Spanish territories in the Americas but also marked a pivotal moment in the Age of Exploration, highlighting themes of conquest, colonization, and cultural encounters between Europeans and indigenous populations.

Aztec Empire

powerful Mesoamerican civilization that flourished from the 14th to the 16th centuries, centered in Mexico City. advanced agricultural techniques, complex social structure, and impressive architecture, the empire played a significant role during the Age of Exploration, as European powers sought new territories and resources in the Americas. Got exposed to new diseases by the Europeans which lead to its eventual collapse. Capital was tenochtitlan

Francisco Pizarro

Conquered the Inca Empire and captured its leader Atahualpa. He exploited internal conflicts among the Incas to establish Spanish dominance in Peru

Encomienda system

A labor system instituted by the Spanish crown during the colonization of the Americas, granting settlers the right to extract labor and tribute from indigenous people in exchange for protection and Christianization. Forced labor were Indigenous people were compelled to work for Spanish landowners

New world

lands of the Americas that were unknown to Europeans before the Age of Exploration. It became a focal point for exploration, colonization, and economic exploitation, reshaping global trade and cultural exchanges in significant ways.

Columbian exchange

widespread transfer of plants, animals, foods, human populations, diseases, and culture between the Americas and the Old World following Christopher Columbus's voyages in 1492. transformed both continents, impacting economies, populations, and societies in profound ways. Introduced staple crops like potatoes, maize, and tomatoes into Europe.

Nation-states

a political entity characterized by a defined territory, a permanent population, a governing body, and the ability to enter into relations with other states. reflects a sense of national identity and cultural unity among its citizens, which became increasingly significant during the Renaissance as ideas of individualism and centralized power emerged.

francis I

King of France from 1515 to 1547, known for his role in the emergence of the French Renaissance and strengthening the monarchy. His reign was marked by efforts to centralize power and expand French territory, which played a significant role in the broader context of new monarchies, religious conflicts, and societal changes in 16th-century Europe. Patron of the arts/promoted the Renaissance

French Wars of Religion

series of conflicts from 1562 to 1598 primarily between French Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants), marked by political struggles for power and religious dominance. These wars are crucial in understanding the broader context of religious conflicts in Europe during the Reformation and their impact on state power, society, and politics.

Catherine de Medici

France, navigated religious conflicts during the 16th century like the wars of religion and wanted to maintain stability. She strengthened the Medicis power through political marriages, diplomacy and was sometimes ruthless. Promoted a vision of moderate Catholicism while balancing factions in the court.

Henry of Navarre/IV

of France, pivotal figure during the Wars of Religion in France, 1589 - 1610. Protestant leader who became king after the War of the Three Henrys and ultimately converted to Catholicism to secure his rule and end the religious conflicts that plagued France. His ascension marked a significant turning point, as he worked to promote tolerance and stabilize the nation. Issued Edict of Nantes

St. bartholomew’s Day massacre

targeted series of killings of Huguenots on August 24, 1572, in Paris, during a time of intense religious conflict in France. This event marked a significant turning point in the Wars of Religion, deepening the divide between Catholics and Protestants and leading to a cycle of violence that would engulf France for years to come. Orchestrated by Catherine de’ Medici

Peace of Augsburg

treaty signed in 1555 that ended the religious civil war between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire. allowed each prince to determine whether their territory would be Catholic or Lutheran, thereby establishing a precedent for religious self-determination in the region and reflecting the broader religious conflicts of the time.

Frederick III

played crucial roles in shaping Prussian absolutism and the development of the state. implemented significant military, administrative, and social reforms that strengthened the centralized power of the monarchy and laid the groundwork for Prussia's emergence as a major European power. Modernized administration and military organization after the Napoleonic wars

The Thirty Years War

1618 to 1648 ,involved many European powers and primarily took place within the Holy Roman Empire, rooted in religious disputes between Catholics and Protestants. reshaped the political landscape of Europe but also set the stage for the modern concept of state sovereignty and the balance of power. Began with the Defenestration of Prague

Bohemia

historical region in central Europe, primarily located in what is now the Czech Republic. During the Wars of Religion, it became a focal point of conflict between Catholic and Protestant factions, most notably during the Thirty Years' War, which had profound implications for European politics and religion. Predominantly protestant.

Peace of Westphalia

series of treaties signed in 1648, ended the Thirty Years' War in Europe, establishing a new political order based on the principles of state sovereignty and non-interference. turning point in European diplomacy and the concept of nation-states, leading to a more structured international system. Weakened the holy roman empire, ended hopes that Europe might be unified under a single Christian faith.

Henry VIII

King of England from 1509 to 1547, s six marriages ,role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. marked a significant shift in religious and political power, deeply influencing the religious landscape of Europe during the Renaissance and Reformation. was known as the Defender of Faith.

Catherine of Aragon

wife of Henry VIII of england, mother of Mary I, bore him a daughter but no male heir which led to Henry to seek a marriage annulment from the Pope

Anne Boleyn

Second wife of King Henry VIII, Henry broke with Rome and established the Church of England where he was the head and was able to marry her.

Reformation Parliament

1529-1536, key period in English reformation, series of laws severed England’s ties with the catholic church and established Henry VIII as the supreme head of the church of England. Shifts in religious and political authority

Elizabeth Tudor

Queen of England from 1558 until her death in 1603, known for her strong leadership and the Elizabethan Era, a period marked by English cultural flourishing and expansion. Her reign is often associated with the consolidation of Protestantism, significant political stability, and military victories, notably against Spain. Last monarch of the Tudor dynasty.

Act of Supremacy

significant law passed by the English Parliament in 1534 that declared King Henry VIII as the Supreme Head of the Church of England, effectively breaking away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. This act was a cornerstone in establishing a national church in England and marked a pivotal moment in the Protestant Reformation and religious politics in Europe.

Mary Tudor/I

queen of England from 1553 until her death in 1558. attempted to reverse the Protestant Reformation in England and restore Roman Catholicism, led to significant religious and political challenges during the 16th century. aka bloody Mary due to her persecution of protestants that resulted in multiple executions.

The protestant reformation

16th century movement, sought to reform the practices and beliefs of the Catholic Church, lead to the establishment of various Protestant denominations. driven by widespread discontent with corruption, the sale of indulgences, and differing theological views, challenged the authority of the papacy and altering the religious landscape. sparked religious change and significant political, social, and economic implications, laying the groundwork for subsequent conflicts during the Wars of Religion.

the black death

devastating pandemic of bubonic plague , in the mid-14th century, death of an estimated one-third of the population. far-reaching effects on society, economy, and demographic changes, influencing practices and developments in Europe for centuries to come. increased wages and improved living conditions for survivor,s decline in feudalism, and cultural/religious changes.

John Wycliffe

a 14th-century English theologian that had a role in the translation of the Bible into vernacular English. His ideas challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, paving the way for later reformers in the 16th and 17th centuries and addressing significant religious and political challenges of that time. sola scriptura

Lollards

followers of John Wycliffe in the late 14th century, advocating for reforms within the Church and promoting ideas like the authority of Scripture over church tradition. This movement is significant as it marked one of the early challenges to the established Church, emphasizing personal faith and criticizing clerical corruption.

Jan Hus

Czech theologian and reformer, early 15th century, criticized of the Catholic Church its practices and doctrines. foreshadowed the Protestant Reformation and highlighted significant challenges to the Church's authority during a period of growing dissatisfaction with religious institutions. believed that the bible should be accessible, criticized indulgences

Martin Luther

German theologian and religious reformer whose actions sparked the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. challenged the Catholic Church's practices, especially the sale of indulgences, and emphasized salvation through faith alone, reshaping the religious landscape of Europe. made the 95 theses

Johann Tetzel

Dominican friar and preacher that sold of indulgences in the early 16th century, contributed to the Protestant Reformation. His famous slogan, 'As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs,' highlighted the controversial practice of selling indulgences, causing widespread criticism and spurring significant religious challenges during this period. commissioned by Pope Leo X

Pope Leo x

216th pope of the Roman Catholic Church, 1513 to 1521. known for his lavish lifestyle, patronage of the arts, and significant role in the events leading up to the Protestant Reformation, particularly his opposition to Martin Luther's reform efforts. His papacy is marked by the tension between traditional Catholic authority and the rising challenge posed by Protestant reformers.

Diet of Worms

Council convened by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1521 to address the concerns of Martin Luther and the protestant reformations. Martin Luther than refused to recant his writings.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor, 1519 to 1556 and King of Spain from 1516. ruled over an extensive empire that included vast territories in Europe and the Americas, which made him a central figure during critical conflicts such as the Protestant Reformation and the Wars of Religion. Defender of Catholicism and wanted to suppress Protestant movements.

German Peasants’ Revolt

1524 to 1525, peasants in Germany revolted against oppressive feudal practices and demanded social and economic reforms. linked to the broader social changes initiated by the Protestant Reformation, like ideas promoted by Martin Luther that encouraged individuals to question authority, including the social hierarchy. Crushed by nobility and Luther condemned their actions afterwards.

Priesthood of all Believers

All Christians not just ordained clergy have direct access to God and can participate in spiritual ministry

Schmalkadic War

Protestant princes in the Holy Roman Empire and the Catholic emperor Charles V, primarily occurring from 1546 to 1555. critical struggle during the Protestant Reformation, highlighting the tensions between Protestant reformers and traditional Catholic authority.

Peace of Augsburg

1555 treaty that ended the war between Catholic in protestants by allowing each print in the Holy Roman empire to determine the religion of their territory as Catholic or Lutheran. Precedent for religious self-determination

radical reformation

substantial and often rapid changes in political, social, or economic structures that aim to transform society in a fundamental way. often arise from the desire to address deep-seated injustices or inequalities and are characterized by their departure from traditional methods and gradual changes, seeking instead to create new systems or ideologies. Ex. French Revolution

anabaptists

radical Protestant sect, emerged in the early 16th century, advocating for adult baptism and a separation from state influence in religious matters. rooted in the idea of voluntary faith and the rejection of infant baptism, viewing it as unbiblical. This movement was part of the broader Protestant Reformation, which sought to reform the practices and beliefs of the Catholic Church.

Ulrich Zwingli

Swiss Protestant reformer that advocated for a break from Catholic traditions and the establishment of a reformed Christian church. He emphasized the importance of Scripture and rejected practices not explicitly supported by the Bible, distinguishing himself from contemporaries like Martin Luther in key theological areas. His reforms significantly impacted religious practices in Zurich and laid groundwork for later Protestant movements.