Human Anatomy: Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive Systems Overview

What happens to inhaled gases?

They are warmed, humidified, and cleaned.

What are paranasal sinuses?

Air spaces that make bones lighter, named for the bones they are in: Frontal, Ethmoidal, Sphenoidal, Maxillary.

What are the parts of the pharynx?

Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, Laryngopharynx.

Where do the auditory tubes open?

Into the lateral walls of the nasopharynx.

What are the main cartilages in the larynx?

Thyroid cartilage, Cricoid cartilage, Epiglottis, and other small paired cartilages.

What is the glottis?

The glottis is the vocal folds plus the rima glottidis.

Where does the trachea bifurcate?

At the level of the sternal angle.

What is the internal projection at the trachea bifurcation?

The carina.

What is the pathway of air from the atmosphere to the alveoli?

Nose, Nasal cavity, Nasal conchae & meatuses, Pharynx (nasopharynx → oropharynx → laryngopharynx), Larynx, Trachea, Main bronchi, Lobar bronchi, Segmental bronchi, Bronchioles, Terminal bronchioles, Respiratory bronchioles, Alveolar ducts, Alveoli.

What is bronchoconstriction?

Contraction of bronchiole smooth muscle.

What is bronchodilation?

Relaxation of bronchiole smooth muscle.

What are the types of alveolar cells?

Alveolar type I cells (simple squamous) Alveolar type II cells (cuboidal, produce pulmonary surfactant), Alveolar macrophages (dust cells, engulf microorganisms and particles).

What is the purpose of pulmonary surfactant?

Decreases surface tension within the alveolus and prevents alveolar collapse.

How many lobes does the right lung have?

3 lobes: superior, middle, inferior.

What fissures are present in the right lung?

Oblique and horizontal fissures.

What is unique about the left lung?

It is smaller for the heart and has a cardiac impression and cardiac notch. Oblique fissure, 2 lobes, lingula (homologous to right lung)

What is the difference between quiet and forced breathing?

Quiet breathing occurs at rest using the diaphragm and external intercostals, while forced breathing occurs during exercise or exertion with additional muscles.

What changes occur in the thoracic cavity during breathing?

Vertical (diaphragm movement), Lateral (rib cage elevation or depression), Anterior-posterior (sternum moves forward or backward).

What are VRG nerves?

VRG upper motor neurons that connect to the spinal cord, phrenic nerve (diaphragm), and intercostal nerves (intercostal muscles).

How is the respiratory system impacted by age?

It becomes less efficient, less elastic connective tissue leads to decreased depth and rate of ventilation, pollutants accumulate, and smoking increases the risk of COPD.

What does COPD stand for?

Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, including emphysema and chronic bronchitis.

What is emphysema?

A condition that decreases the functionality of the respiratory system, worsened by pollutants and smoking.

What is a bolus?

Food mixed with saliva.

What is chyme?

What the stomach converts the bolus into.

What is peristalsis?

A ripple-like wave of muscular contraction that forces material to move further along the GI tract.

What are the functions of the digestive system?

Ingestion, Motility, Secretion, Digestion, Absorption, Elimination of wastes.

What is mechanical digestion?

Physically breaks down materials, including mastication (chewing).

What is chemical digestion?

Breaks down ingested material into smaller molecules using enzymes.

What is the scientific term for pooping?

Defecation.

What is the scientific term for poop?

Feces.

What is the function of the hard palate?

Contains transverse palatine folds that help the tongue manipulate food.

What does the uvula do?

Elevates during swallowing and closes off the posterior entrance to the nasopharynx.

What are the functions of saliva?

Moistens ingested materials to become a slick bolus, cleanses and lubricates oral structures, begins chemical digestion of carbohydrates, has antibacterial action, and dissolves food for taste.

What are the pairs of salivary glands and their saliva production percentages?

Parotid glands: 25-30%, Submandibular glands: 60-70%, Sublingual glands: 3-5%.

What do mucous cells secrete?

Mucin, which forms mucus when hydrated.

What do serous cells secrete?

Fluid with ions, lysozyme, and salivary amylase.

What are the surfaces of teeth?

Mesial, Distal, Buccal, Labial, Lingual, Occlusal.

How many deciduous teeth are there?

20 total; erupt between 6-30 months.

How many permanent teeth are there?

32 total; replace deciduous teeth.

What are mesenteries?

Folds of peritoneum that support and stabilize intraperitoneal GI organs.

What are the four tunics of the GI wall?

Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis, Adventitia or Serosa.

What do surface mucous cells secrete?

Alkaline fluid with mucin

What do mucous neck cells secrete?

Less-alkaline mucin fluid

What do parietal cells secrete?

Hydrochloric acid & intrinsic factor

What do chief cells secrete?

Pepsinogen

What do enteroendocrine cells secrete?

Hormones such as gastrin

What are villi?

Fingerlike projections on circular folds

What are microvilli?

Fingerlike projections on villi

What is the collective name for villi and microvilli?

Brush border

What are the functions of the large intestine?

Absorbs most remaining water, electrolytes, vitamins; compacts undigestible wastes into feces; stores feces until defecation

What are haustra?

Sacs formed by contraction of teniae coli

What are teniae coli?

Incomplete longitudinal muscle bands of large intestine

What is the ileocecal valve?

Sphincter controlling entry of materials into large intestine

What is the vermiform appendix?

Thin, hollow, fingerlike appendage with lymphoid nodules

What are the components of the biliary apparatus?

Left & right hepatic ducts, cystic duct, common hepatic duct, common bile duct, main pancreatic duct

What is the function of the urinary system?

Storage of urine, expulsion of urine, regulation of blood volume, erythrocyte production, ion levels, and acid-base balance

What are the tissue layers surrounding the kidneys from inner to outer?

Fibrous capsule, perinephric fat, renal fascia, paranephric fat

What does retroperitoneal mean?

The kidneys sit behind the peritoneum.

What are the structures in the nephron?

Renal corpuscle, glomerulus, glomerular capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, descending limb, ascending limb, distal convoluted tubule, collecting tubule, collecting duct, papillary duct

What is the difference between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons?

Cortical nephrons: 85% of nephrons, bulk in cortex. Juxtamedullary nephrons: 15% of nephrons, corpuscle near corticomedullary junction, long nephron loop.

What are the three processes of the nephron before forming urine?

Filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion

What is a glomerulus?

A thick tangle of capillaries located within the renal corpuscle.

What is the prior name for the Nephron Loop?

Loop of Henle

What does GFR stand for?

Glomerular Filtration Rate

What enzyme do granular cells release?

Renin

What are the components of the urinary tract?

Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra

What helps the bladder be expandable?

Rugae (mucosal folds) and Transitional epithelium

What are the four tunics of the urinary bladder?

Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis, Adventitia

Mucosa components (urinary bladder)

transitional epithelium, rugae

submucosa components (urinary bladder)

dense irregular CT

muscularis components (urinary bladder)

three layers of smooth muscle (detrusor muscle)

Adventitia components (urinary bladder)

areolar CT

What does the urethra have to propel urine?

Smooth muscle

What are the names and positions of the two urethral sphincters?

Internal urethral sphincter at neck of bladder (involuntary) and External urethral sphincter inferior to internal sphincter (voluntary)

What is the difference between male and female urethra?

Female urethra transports only urine (stratified squamous); Male urethra transports urine and semen (many kinds of epithelium)

What is the scientific name for urination?

Micturition

What is the functional unit of the urinary system?

Nephron

What are the male and female gonad names and gametes?

Testes - sperm; Ovaries - oocytes

What are alternate names for sexual intercourse?

Copulation and Coitus

What is the role of GnRH?

Stimulates anterior pituitary to create FSH and LH

What does FSH do?

Stimulates the development of eggs in women and sperm production in men

What is the function of LH?

Stimulates ovulation in females and testosterone production in males

What does hCG do?

Supports early pregnancy by signaling the body to produce progesterone and estrogen

What are the roles of Prostaglandins?

Inflammation, blood flow, pain, swelling, and reproduction

What is PSA?

Prostate-Specific Antigen, helps liquefy semen

What is HRT?

Hormone replacement therapy for menopausal symptoms

What does the urogenital triangle contain?

Urethral and vaginal orifices in females; base of penis and scrotum in males

What are the pouches around female pelvic organs?

Vesicouterine pouch and Rectouterine pouch

What are the paired and unpaired structures in females?

Paired: Ovaries, Uterine tubes; Unpaired: Uterus, Cervix, Vagina

What are the paired and unpaired structures in males?

Paired: Testes, Epididymis, Seminal vesicle, Bulbourethral gland; Unpaired: Prostate gland, Urethra, Penis

What are the phases of the ovarian cycle?

Follicular phase, Ovulation, Luteal phase

What defines menopause?

Cessation of periods for over a year, typically in mid 40s to 50s

What are the regions and layers of uterine tubes?

Regions: Infundibulum, Fimbriae, Ampulla, Isthmus, Uterine; Layers: Serosa, Muscularis mucosae, Mucosa

What is the normal angle of the uterus?

Anteverted (anterosuperiorly across the urinary bladder)

What is the microanatomy of the cervix?

Cervical canal, Internal os, External os

What are the phases of the menstrual cycle?

Menstrual phase, Proliferative phase, Secretory phase

Where is sperm produced?

Testicles inside the scrotum

What is the correct order of sperm location from production to exiting the penis?

Testicles, Epididymis, Vas deferens, Ejaculatory duct, Urethra

What are the components of ejaculate?

Sperm, seminal fluids, prostate gland fluid, bulbourethral gland fluid

What is the location and path of the spermatic cord?

From abdomen to testicle in the scrotum, passing through the inguinal canal