Iran Test

Why Study Iran?

• Theocratic republic with democratic elements

• Unique among Middle Eastern countries

• Tradition versus modernization

Geography

• Crossroads between:

  • Central Asia and Asia Minor

  • Indian subcontinent and the Middle East

  • Arabian Peninsula and the Caucasus Mountains

• Historically vulnerable to invaders

• Much of territory inhospitable to agriculture

• Among the largest oil producers in the world

• Urbanized and partly industrialized

Population

• 67% of population on 27% of land

• Persian country, NOT Arab

• Shi’a Muslim

• Speak Farsi (Persian)

• Iran has a large young population

• Less birth rates since the 1979 Revolution

Sunni v. Shia

• Sunni

  • Overwhelming majority in world

  • Most prominent members of community should select new leader

• Shia

  • Majority in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, possibly Lebanon (very close)

  • Leadership should be based on bloodlines to Muhammad

  • Senior clerical scholars (ayatollahs) should interpret Shari’a until Twelfth Imam returns

Safavids & Qajars

• Safavids (1501-1722) conquered Iran in 16th century

  • Forcibly converted their subjects to Shi’ism

  • Established the higher clergy (Ayatollahs)

• Qajars (1794-1925)

  • A Turkish tribe takes power after invasion and civil war

  • Move capital to Tehran

  • Economic troubles during time of imperialism

  • Experimented with some western-style reforms in later decades

  • Surrendered some sovereignty to the British

Constitutional Revolution (1905-1909)

• Constitution of 1906

  • Direct elections

  • Separation of powers

  • Laws made by elected legislature 

    • Very strong – controlled cabinet members

  • Popular sovereignty

  • Bill of Rights

  • Retained Shiism as official religion

  • Created Guardian Council of clerics

    • Veto power

The Pahlavi Dynasty (1925-1979)

• 1921 - Reza Shah carried out coup d’etat 

  • Ruled with iron fist; Majles lost its power

  • Changed name from Persia to Iran; allied with Nazis

• 1941 son, Mohammad Reza Shah took power in 1941

  • Formed SAVAK- secret police

  • Authoritarian regime

  • Alliance with U.S.

• Rise of the National Front (opposition)

  • Led by Mohammad Mosaddegh

  • Drew support from middle class

  • Emphasized Iranian nationalism

The 1953 Coup

• Mosaddegh advocated nationalizing the British owned-company that monopolized Iran’s oil business

  • Supported by Tudeh – Communist Party

  • Also wanted to take armed forces out from under shah’s control

• Elected Prime Minister in 1951

  • Power grew & forced shah to flee country in 1953

• British and U.S. orchestrated overthrow of Mosaddeq & restored shah to power

Muhammad Reza Shah

• Westernization (White Revolution)/Secularization of Iranian culture

• Rentier state

  • Iran received an increasing amount of income by exporting its oil

  • Income so great that by 1970s government no longer relied on internal taxes for support

  • Paid most of its expenses through oil income

• Industrialization and centralization

• The Shah’s Downfall:

  • Became more distant from people over the years

  • Became very wealthy

  • Ignored civil liberties

  • Stifled newspapers, political parties, and professional associations

• Overstepped bounds of political culture:

  • Perceived as being totalitarian

  • Secularized too fast

  • Offended nationalists and clergy with ties to the west (particularly U.S.)

1979 Revolution

• Triggers:

  • Oil prices decreased by 10% and consumer prices increased 20%

  • Revolution of rising expectations

  • U.S. put pressure on shah to loosen restraints on opposition

    • Encouraged others to voice frustrations

• Organized and led by clerics, but broadly supported by many sectors

• Charismatic leader – Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

  • In exile in Iraq, but speeches were influential

• Shah fled country in Feb 1979

Founding of the Islamic Republic - 1979

• April 1979 national referendum was held – voted out monarchy established Islamic Republic

• Established a new constitution

• Ayatollah Khomeini (Supreme Leader)

• Islamic fundamentalism

• Jurist’s guardianship (velayat-e faqih):

  • Gave senior clergy (Grand ayatollahs) all-encompassing authority over the whole community

• Only senior clerics could interpret Shari’a Law

Iran Hostage Crisis

• American embassy hostages held for 444 days from 1979-1981

Cultural Revolution

• Launched by Shia leaders after revolution

• Aimed to purify the country from the shah’s regime, secular values, and western influences

• Purged universities of liberals

• Suppressed all opposition

Iran-Iraq War (1980-88)

• Started when Iraq invaded Iran by land and air

• People rallied around the government in response

• Ended in 1988 with a UN-brokered cease-fire

President Hashemi Rafsanjani (1989-1997)

• Moderate

• Concerned with reforming slumping economy due to theological commitments and war with Iraq

• Very few reforms

President Mohammad Khatami (1997-2005)

• Reformist and surprise winner

• Less censorship of press

• Tried to improve relations with US and other Western countries - “dialogue of civilizations” vs “clash of civilizations”

• “Twin Bills” to make president’s powers more clear through amendments

  • Rejected by Guardian Council

• Economic privatization/liberalization

• Did not have support from Supreme Leader & many other conservatives

President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (2005-2013)

• Tehran's ultra-conservative mayor

• Won a run-off vote in presidential elections in 2005

• First non-cleric president in 24 years

• Defended nuclear program

• “Bonyads”: private contracts given to foundations run by wealthy clerics and the revolutionary guard

• Council of Guardians rejected candidacies of popular reformers

• Closed reformist newspapers

• Journalists and internet users that spoke out were arrested

• Morality police

• Increasing reports of arrest, torture, and executions

• Sharia more strictly enforced

2009 Presidential Election Controversy

• Huge push for reformist candidate Mousavi to beat Ahmadinejad

• Close race – 85% Turnout

• Allegations of fraud were strong – Mousavi urged his supporters to the streets

• Khamenei agreed to an investigation, but it was also questionable

• Huge protests/Government Crackdowns

President Rouhani (2013-2021)

• Moderate cleric

• Negotiation of the Iran Nuclear Deal (2015)

Ebrahim Raisi (2021- 2024)

• Former head of Judiciary

• Played key role in crackdown against “dissidents” following 2009 election protests

• Many of his opponents were disqualified from the election

• He won an overwhelming majority with less than 50% voter turnout

• Increase in defense spending, austerity in domestic spending

• Increase in censorship, “morality” policing, and executions 

• Died in a helicopter crash in May 2024

Masoud Pezeshkian (2024-Present)

• Former Minister of Health and Medical Education

• Lost the 2021 presidential election

• Elected in the July 2024 election in a run-off

• Has supported revived nuclear deal with the US; continues to take an active stance against Israel

• Has openly supported protections for Iran’s minority groups and expanded role of women; increased number of female-held positions in his government

Iran Nuclear Deal (2015) & Relations with U.S.

• Nuclear capabilities have heightened its international presence

• Sanctions against Iran by the West

• U.S. withdrew from the deal in 2018

• 2020: US assassinated one of the Revolutionary Guard’s top leaders, Qasem Soleimani

The Supreme Leader (Head of State)

• Currently: Ayatollah Ali Khamenei (since Khomeini’s death in 1989)

• Most powerful political figure

• Chosen by the clerics who make up the Assembly of Experts

• Appointed for life

• Expected to act as a trustee of community by supervising politics and ensuring laws conform to Islam

  • Faqih – leading Islamic jurist to interpret the meaning of religious documents/sharia law

• He links 3 branches of government together

Powers of the Supreme Leader

• Limit Presidential candidates

• Authority to overrule/dismiss president

• Command of armed forces

• Declaration of war and peace

• Issue decrees for national referenda

• Appoint head of judiciary

• Appoint half of the members of the Guardian Council

• Appoint Friday prayer leaders and the head of radio and TV

The Guardian Council

• 12 (all male) member council, serve 6 year terms

  • 6 cleric members appointed by supreme leader

  • 6 lay members (lawyers) recommended by head of judiciary, subject to approval of Majles

• Council has power to veto any legislation passed by parliament that is at odds with basic tenets of Islam 

• Vetting Power

  • Has right to determine who can run in local, presidential, parliamentary, and Assembly of Religious Experts elections

  • 2012/13: they disqualified thousands of candidates for Majles/Presidential elections

The Assembly of Religious Experts

• 88 members (no females)

  • Directly elected by the people for 8 year terms

• Elects Supreme Leader & has right to dismiss him

• Candidates are subject to approval by Guardian Council

• Doesn’t actually question the Supreme Leader

• Only gathers twice a year 

• Some members are also G.C. members

The Expediency Council

• 35 members appointed by Supreme Leader

• Includes President, chief judge, speaker of the Majles, jurists from Guardian Council

• Serve 5 year terms

• Designed to settle disputes between Majles and Guardian Council

• May originate its own legislation

• Advises the Supreme Leader

The President

• Head of Government

• Currently: Masoud Pezeshkian

  • Former Minister of Health

• Two 4 year terms

• Directly elected by the people

  • Absolute majority of votes

  • Top two run a week later if runoff required

• Candidates approved by Guardian Council

• Qualifications:

  • Between ages of 25 and 75

  • “Personality clause” in constitution allows Guardian Council to bar women

  • “Shi’ite sect” qualification bars Sunni Muslims, Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians and other religious minorities

  • Original expectation was for position to be nonreligious; from 1981-2005 position mostly held by clerics

Powers & Limitations of the President

• Powers

  • Selects cabinet members

  • Drafts state budget & presents legislation to parliament

  • Signs treaties, laws & agreements; technically in charge of foreign policy but often restricted by Supreme Leader

  • Chairs National Security Council

  • Appoints provincial governors, town mayors & ambassadors

• Limitations

  • President cannot veto legislation

  • President cannot dissolve the legislature

  • Can be overruled and dismissed by the Supreme Leader

Election Issues

• 2005 Election disqualified 1,000 candidates (left only 7 to run)

• 2009 Election – Accusations about voter fraud - led to mass protests (Green Movement)

• 2021 Election - only 7 candidates approved to run; over 600 candidates disqualified (including all women)- highly controversial, lowest voter turnout in electoral history

• Progressives/Reformists often barred

The Bureaucracy

• Headed by President

• Grown since the Revolution

• Dominated by clergy

• Most important ministries:

  • Culture and Islamic Guidance (controls media and enforces “proper conduct” in public life)

  • Intelligence (replaced shah’s SAVAK)

  • Heavy Industries (manages nationalized factories)

  • Reconstruction (expands social services and takes “true Islam” to countryside)

The Legislature/Majles (Islamic Consultative Assembly)

• Unicameral; remnant of pre-Republic Iran

• 290 deputies, 4 year terms (renewable)

  • Five guaranteed seats for recognized religious minorities: Christians (3), Jews (1), and Zoroastrians (1) 

  • Unrecognized religious minorities (e.g., Baha’is) cannot run

  • Few females

• Candidates submit their names to subcommittee of Guardian Council, which determines who can run

• Age 30-75

• Used to be mostly clerics; now # of members associated with the Revolutionary Guard has increased

• Does not check Supreme Leader, but often disagrees with President

• MMD and SMD based on population

• Candidates need a simple plurality, but at least 25% to win

• If no candidate reaches 25%, a runoff election is held

• “Campaigning” begins 8 days before the election and ends 24 hours before

Powers of the Majles

• Enact/Amend laws (with approval of Guardian Council)

• Formally appoint 6 of 12 members of Guardian Council, chosen from a list drawn up by chief justice (head of judiciary)

• Investigate cabinet ministers and public complaints against executive and judiciary

• Remove cabinet members (not president)

• Approve budget, cabinet appointments, treaties & loans

The Judiciary

• Based on Sharia Law – supersedes all other

• Qanun – law passed by the Majles – may not contradict Sharia Law

• Not independent

• Supreme leader appoints head of judiciary who appoints senior judges; Chief Justice serves 5 year terms

• Penal Code (Retribution Law)—very strict/harsh 

  • Stoning, lashes, death penalty for many “crimes” (adultery, homosexuality, habitual drinking)

  • Evidence of one male Muslim = evidence of two female Muslims

  • Modernized penalties, but high rate of executions

• Supreme Court is the highest court of appeals

• Revolutionary Court- special courts that handle crimes against the state (blasphemy, treason, etc.)

The Military

• Regular army of 610,000 

• According to Constitution, regular army defends the borders, while the Revolutionary Guards protect the republic

• Revolutionary Guards (est after 1979)

  • Formed to protect the ideals of the Islamic Republic

    • 125,000 active troops, commanders appointed by Supreme Leader

    • The Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988) transformed the IRGC into more of a conventional fighting force

  • Controls the volunteer paramilitary Basij Resistance Force 

  • Control around a third of Iran's economy through a series of subsidiaries and trusts

  • Has provided assistance to militant groups in places such as Afghanistan, Iraq, Lebanon, the Palestinian territories, and Syria

Bonyads (Charitable Foundations)

• Directed by clerics/appointed by Supreme Leader- tax exempt charity organizations that control large amounts of money

  • Foundation for the Oppressed & Disabled

  • Martyrs Foundation

• Most supervise property and state owned businesses 

• After the Revolution, they were nationalized

  • Supposed to redistribute income to poor and families of martyrs (i.e. those killed in the service of the country)

• Over 100; Monopolize many sectors of the economy (e.g., cement, sugar)

• Patronage-oriented holding companies that ensure the channeling of revenues to groups and milieus supporting the regime

• Lack of accountability and transparency → corruption

Political Parties

• Constitution gives citizens the right to organize/assemble

• Constitution allows political parties, but they did not emerge until after 1997 election of Khatami

  • Weak parties have formed – organized around personalities

  • Parties are unstable & change from election to election

  • Not formal political party structure as in other AP 6 countries

• Two major coalitions: Conservative vs Reformist

• Parties led by former dissidents (leaders are in exile)

Interest Groups

• Very weak; unions have no legal status

• Workers House – one of the few prominent interest groups recognized in Iran (formed pre-Revolution)

  • Represents industrial workers

• Few business interest groups have formed – the Iranian government controls between 65%-80% of the economy

Mass Media

• Speech against the government was a criminal offense after the 1979 revolution

  • Some of these have been lifted over time

  • Still a major issue between conservatives & reformers (in terms of access to media/what info is shared by media, etc)

• Major radio and TV is government-run by the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting

• All publications must have licenses from government – can be revoked at any time; every website must be registered

• Since 2010, the government has been building a national network as a substitute for the Internet- “National Information Network” - “Clean internet” 

• Social Media sites from outside of Iran are normally not accessible

Religious Cleavage

• 90% are Shia Muslim

• 10% are Sunni Muslim

• <1% = Jews, Christians, Zoroastrian, Ba’hai 

• Although the constitution recognizes religious minorities (not Sunnis) and protects their rights, many fled the country since the founding of the Islamic Republic in 1979

• The Ba’hai faith has suffered persecution

  • Seen as an unholy offshoot of Islam

  • Leaders have been executed, imprisoned, tortured

  • Their schools have been closed and their community property taken by the state

Ethnic Cleavage

• 51% Persian

• 24% Azeri

• Minority groups forbidden from educating children or receiving government services in native languages

• Minority groups face higher rates of poverty and incarceration, are highly affected by environmental degradation, water shortages, and lack of access to government services

• Minority cultures are often mocked in state media and textbooks

• Azeris live in NW close to Azerbaijan; many minority groups concentrated in border areas

• Iran worries Azeris will want to form larger state by taking away territory from Iran

• Azeris do not speak Persian, BUT are strongly Shiite; 

• Kurds & Arabs tend to be Sunni Muslim

Social Class Cleavage

• Peasantry and lower middle class are sources of support for the regime

• Partly because they have benefitted from the government’s special programs that have provided them with electricity & paved roads

• Middle and upper-middle class are largely secularized

• Tend to be critical of clerics and their control of society

• Reinforced by the fact that many middle class people have not fared well economically since founding of Republic

Reformers v. Conservatives

• Conservatives (principalists):

  • Want to keep the regime under control of clerics/sharia law 

  • Oppose democratization

  • Skeptical of economic liberalization

  • Gain support from Revolutionary Guard

• Reformers:

  • Want to see more secularization and democracy

  • Most reformers do NOT want to do away with basic principles of an Islamic state; but vary on how much and where secularization & democracy should be infused into system

  • Some favor economic liberalization

Pragmatic Conservatives v. Radical Clerics

• Pragmatic Conservatives:

  • Clergy that favor liberal economic policies that encourage free markets

• Radical Clerics:

  • Call for measures to enhance social justice, esp in terms of providing welfare benefits in Iran’s poor

Civil Society

• Suppressed under Pahlavi shahs and still under Republic

• Under presidency of Khatami, Iranians experienced some loosening of freedom of speech and press, but didn’t last long

• Under Ahmadinejad, government closed down newspapers, banned/censored books & websites and did not tolerate peaceful demonstrations and protests

• Currently, some indication of minimal civil society may be found among Iran’s growing number of young people

  • Many are sons/daughters of disillusioned middle-class professionals; are very attracted to western popular culture

Protests & Demonstrations

• 1999 – protests erupted in universities all across the country when the government shutdown a reformist newspaper

• 2002 – demonstrations by students when courts ruled a death sentence for a reformist academic

• 2003 – student mass protests over privatization of university system

• 2007 – security forces attacked striking bus drivers in Tehran/arrested hundreds

• 2007 – police beat hundreds of men/women who assembled to commemorate International Women’s Day

• The 2009–10 Iranian Election Protests 

  • A series of protests following the 2009 Iranian presidential election against the disputed victory of Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and in support of opposition candidates Mir-Hossein Mousavi and Mehdi Karroubi

  • Called the Green Movement after Mousavi’s campaign colors

• Government sent tens of thousands of Revolutionary Guards and Basij to disperse crowds; violence followed; death toll disputed

• Ayatollah Khamenei declared that society had been “vaccinated” against these “germs”

• 2022 protests

  • Triggered by death of 22 year-old Kurdish-Iranian woman Masha Amini while in morality police custody

  • Thousands have been detained for protesting, at least hundreds have been killed

  • Revolutionary guard and police have acted with force against protests

Women & the Political System

• Granted the right to vote in 1963

• First admitted into Iranian universities in 1937

• Women can run for seats in Majles (about 6% currently), but have been blocked from running for president

  • The constitution states that “the president will be elected from religious-political men” but men can also be translated as “personality”

• Well-represented in some areas: doctors and government employees

• But very difficult to get hired – represent 33% of labor force

• The Islamic Republic calls its policy toward women “equality-with-difference”

• Means divorce and custody laws follow Islamic standards that favor males

• Women must wear scarves and long coats in public

  • Must wear hijab; “bad hijab” is the exposure of any body part except for the hands or face; Punishable by either 70 lashes or 60 days in prison 

• Women cannot leave the country without the consent of male relatives

• Occasional stoning of women for adultery has taken place, though government no longer uses it regularly

• Ban on public discussion of women’s issues in a way that contradicts Islamic law

• Law allows girls to be married at age 9 with parental consent