TEST #1 Theories of Ethnicity and Race

What is Theory?

Theory refers to a set of ideas grounded in hypotheses and empirical evidence that sociologists use to understand, explain, and predict patterns in social life, including how ethnic and racial relations form and change.

Theories matter because there is no single cause of ethnic or racial inequality; instead, different theories highlight different mechanisms such as biology, culture, power, or economics.

Primordialism

Primordialism explains ethnicity and "race" as fixed, inherited characteristics that individuals are born with and that derive from biological ties, ancestry, or deeply rooted cultural bonds.

From this perspective, ethnic identity is natural, stable, and immutable, rather than socially produced or historically changing.

- example: like saying a black man is fixed to be naturally angry

Sociobiology (Primordial Variant)

Sociobiology is a version of primordialism that says ethnic and racial group attachment comes from biology and evolution, not society.

The basic claim is:

Humans are biologically inclined to prefer, protect, and cooperate with people who are most like them because it helps their group survive over time.

Pierre van den Berghe suggested that practices such as nepotism and inclusive fitness (preferring one's own group in marriage or social life) reflect evolutionary strategies rather than social forces alone.

Example: Sociologists using a primordial approach could study the role of nepotism or "inclusive fitness" in racialized preferences in online dating apps

why primordial perspective may be insufficient

- it doesnt explain how diverse ethnic groups coexist in peace

- Critics also argue that these theories ignore historical change, power relations, and the role of institutions in shaping ethnic boundaries.

- It overstates biology and ignores social power

- It risks justifying racism as "natural"

Theories of Culture & Assimilation (Pluralism)

Pluralist theories argue that ethnic groups can maintain distinct cultural identities while still participating fully in society, rather than being forced to abandon language, religion, or traditions.

Early Chicago School sociologists such as W. I. Thomas supported pluralism, viewing cultural diversity as compatible with social cohesion and democratic participation.

Theories of Culture & Assimilation (Melting Pot)

Melting pot theory suggests that when different ethnic or racial groups come into contact, they eventually blend into a new, shared culture through assimilation.

Robert Park's race relations cycle proposes that contact leads to competition, accommodation, and finally assimilation, producing social harmony by absorbing minorities into the dominant culture.

Contact Hypothesis

The contact hypothesis argues that prejudice between groups can be reduced through interaction, but only when specific conditions are met, such as equal status between groups and institutional support.

Critics point out that contact alone does not automatically reduce prejudice and may even reinforce inequality if power differences are ignored.

Critics of contact hypothesis

pointed out that the hypothesis does not really specify how and why contact under these conditions reduces prejudice or if the effects of contact can be generalized to other situations (Pettigrew, 1998

Blocked Mobility Thesis

John Porter's Blocked Mobility Thesis argues that ethnic affiliation can limit upward social mobility when groups are excluded from economic and social opportunities, particularly in Canada.

People from certain ethnic groups cannot move up the social class ladder because their ethnic background blocks access to better jobs, power, and status.

Porter suggested that lack of assimilation contributed to these barriers, though later scholars criticized this for blaming culture rather than structural inequality.

Critique of theories like the Blocked Mobility Thesis

• Culture is not static, monolithic, uniform, or homogeneous

• Everyone in an ethnic group may not share the same values

• Assumed homogeneity of an ethnic group is problematic

• Just a class analysis is insufficient for explaining social inequalities

Critiques of Cultural Explanations

Cultural explanations are criticized for treating ethnic groups as homogeneous and static, ignoring internal diversity and change over time.

Sociologists argue that culture alone cannot explain inequality without considering class, power, and institutional discrimination.

Conflict Theory & Political Economy

The political economy perspective views ethnic and racial relations through the lens of conflict over power, resources, and economic control, drawing heavily on Marx and Weber.

From this view, ethnicity and "race" are shaped by broader class structures and material conditions rather than cultural difference alone.

Racism, Capitalism, and Class Relations

Political economy approaches emphasize that racial ideologies have historically justified economic exploitation, particularly in systems of enslavement and colonial capitalism.

W.E.B. Du Bois argued that defining Black people as inferior served to legitimize unfree labour and unequal treatment within the global capitalist system.

Contemporary Political Economy Approaches

More recent approaches focus on how economic competition over jobs, housing, and markets can generate racial tension, even in the absence of explicit racist ideology.

These conflicts often appear cultural on the surface but are rooted in underlying class relations.

W.E.B. Du Bois - Double Consciousness

Du Bois's concept of double consciousness describes the internal conflict experienced by Black Americans who must see themselves both through their own identity and through the gaze of a society that devalues them.

This divided self reflects the psychological impact of living in a racially stratified society rather than a personal failing.