Art and archeology of South Asia overview

South Asia

A culturally connected region including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives, and sometimes Afghanistan and Tibet; the term is colonial in origin.

Decolonization

The critical dismantling of colonial, Eurocentric narratives and power structures in art history and archaeology.

Material culture

Physical objects that reflect social, religious, economic, and political practices of past societies.

Archaeology

The study of human history and prehistory through excavation and analysis of material remains.

Art history

The study of visual and material expressions of culture, focusing on style, meaning, and context.

Palaeolithic

Early Stone Age characterized by hunter-gatherers and stone tools.

Mesolithic

Transitional period marked by microliths and advanced hunting technologies.

Neolithic

Period defined by agriculture, animal domestication, and permanent settlements.

Microliths

Very small stone tools used in composite weapons, showing advanced technical knowledge.

Mehrgarh

Early Neolithic site (c. 7000 BCE) with the earliest evidence of farming in South Asia.

Bhimbetka

Mesolithic rock shelters with paintings, showing early symbolic behavior.

Fa Hien Lena

Sri Lankan cave with Homo sapiens tools dated to c. 48,000 BP.

Indus Valley Civilization

Bronze Age urban civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE) with advanced planning and trade.

Mohenjo-daro

Largest Indus city with grid planning, drainage systems, and the Great Bath.

Harappa

Major Indus urban center giving its name to the Harappan Civilization.

Great Bath (Harappa)

Monumental water structure possibly used for ritual purification.

Indus seals

Objects with animal motifs and undeciphered script, likely used as identification markers.

Standardization (IVC)

Uniform bricks, weights, and measurements across the Indus region.

Meluhha

Mesopotamian name for the Indus region.

Second Urbanization of South Asia

Rise of cities in the Ganges Valley from the 6th century BCE.

Magadha

Powerful kingdom central to Buddhism and Jainism.

Pataliputra

Capital of the Mauryan Empire, located on the Ganges.

Mauryan Empire

India’s first large empire (c. 322–185 BCE).

Candragupta Maurya

Founder of the Mauryan Empire (r. c. 322–297 BCE).

Ashoka

Mauryan emperor (r. c. 268–232 BCE), first Buddhist ruler.

Ashokan pillars

Monolithic polished sandstone columns with animal capitals.

Dharma

Moral and cosmic law governing reality.

Brahmanism

Early Hinduism based on Vedic authority and ritual sacrifice.

Vedas

Sacred texts composed c. 1500 BCE.

Sramanic traditions

Ascetic movements rejecting Vedic authority.

Asceticism

Renunciation of worldly life to attain liberation.

Samsara

Cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

Moksha

Liberation from samsara.

Karma

Moral causation governing rebirth.

Siddhartha Gautama

Historical Buddha (6th century BCE).

Buddha

An awakened being who attained bodhi.

Bodhi

Supreme awakening.

Nirvana

Extinction of suffering and release from samsara.

Four Noble Truths

Core Buddhist doctrine explaining suffering and liberation.

Eightfold Path

Ethical and mental path leading to nirvana.

Middle Way

Buddhist rejection of extremes.

Stupa

Buddhist reliquary monument for worship.

Aniconism

Avoidance of depicting the Buddha in human form.

Gandhara

Region of northwestern South Asia known for Buddhist art influenced by Hellenistic styles.

Kushan Empire

Central Asian dynasty (1st–3rd c. CE) supporting Buddhism.

Kanishka I

Kushan ruler associated with Buddhist expansion.

Bodhisattva

Being who postpones nirvana to help others.

Maitreya

Future Buddha residing in Tusita Heaven.

Avalokitesvara

Bodhisattva of compassion.

Jainism

Ascetic religion emphasizing non-violence.

Tirthankara

Enlightened teacher in Jainism.

Mahavira

24th Tirthankara (6th century BCE).

Ahimsa

Absolute non-violence.

Digambara

Jain sect whose male monks renounce clothing.

Svetambara

Jain sect whose monks wear white garments.

Hinduism

A diverse set of religious traditions without a single founder.

Trimurti

Hindu triad: Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva.

Vishnu

Preserver god, associated with avatars.

Avatar

Earthly incarnation of Vishnu.

Shiva

God of destruction and transformation.

Nataraja

Shiva as cosmic dancer.

Lingam

Aniconic symbol of Shiva.

Durga

Warrior goddess slaying Mahishasura.

Lakshmi

Goddess of wealth and prosperity.

Temple

The house of a deity where divine presence becomes manifest.

Garbhagriha

Inner sanctum of a Hindu temple.

Mandapa

Pillared hall in front of the sanctum.

Shikhara

Tower above the sanctum in North Indian temples.

Vimana

Temple tower in South Indian architecture.

Nagara style

North Indian temple architecture with curvilinear towers.

Dravida style

South Indian temple architecture with pyramidal towers.

Rock-cut architecture

Structures excavated directly into rock.

Chaitya hall

Buddhist prayer hall with a stupa.

Vihara

Monastic residence for monks and nuns.

Ajanta

Buddhist cave complex with murals (5th c. CE).

Ellora

Multi-religious rock-cut site (Buddhist, Hindu, Jain).

Trade routes

Networks connecting India with the Roman world.

Indo-Roman trade

Exchange of spices, ivory, textiles for gold and wine.

Company painting

Indian paintings made for European patrons under colonial rule.

Mughal painting

Court art combining Persian, Indian, and European elements.

Rajput painting

Regional Hindu painting traditions emphasizing devotion.

Patronage

Support of art by rulers, merchants, or religious institutions.

Repatriation

Return of cultural objects to their place of origin.

Cultural heritage

Tangible and intangible legacy of past societies.