Theme 4: Ageing and Identity REFERENCES

Baltes et al., 2006

development is not fixed; it evolves across the lifespan

Havighurst, 1961

activity theory - we maintain our identity after age related losses (retirement, reduced physical ability) by replacing them with new roles, interests and people

Carstensen, 2000

as people age and become more aware of their time horizons, their goals/motivations and social networks shift.

Older adults actively choose which roles, relationships, values matter most - this reflects identity refinement, not loss

Baltes and Baltes, 1990

selection, optimisation with compensation model - development consists of dynamic interactions between gains and losses. Identity becomes more focused and intentional

Gladstone, 1995

Found themes when interviewing spousal dementia carers - 'marriage as a memory' 'changed marriage' - loss of companionship despite person still being present, feeling like a friend, mother/child now, relationship is ambiguous, HOWEVER, not always the case - some reported their marriage as unchanged

Van Ours, 2021

men often report experiencing greater isolation at retirement age

(reflects loss of work-related identity)

Puyane et al., 2025

women are more likely to report higher levels of mental distress associated with loneliness/isolation

- potentially due to stronger relational self concepts and caregiver identities

National EoL Care Intelligence Network, 2014

44.5% of those who die, do so in their usual place of residence

Gierveld, 1987

loneliness is the subjective negative feeling associated with someone's perception that their relationship with others are quantitatively/qualitatively deficient

Wurtele, 2009

asked young people to generate items for 65+, depicted as passive, unproductive, negative view of older life

Abrams et al., 2011

average perception of old age is 59

Cuddy and Fiske, 2002

mixed perceptions, images ranged from incompetent fool to compassionate and wise

even 'positive' ones can be harmful - infantilises them

Abrams et al., 2009

ageism is the most commonly experienced form of prejudice in Britain

Ayalon, 2014

associated with underlying (often negative) conception of older adults, highly prevalent, but usually goes unchallenged

Kelly et al., 2016

media depictions of older adults in music have a predominantly negative discourse of age and ageing within lyrics

Shinan-Altman and Werner, 2019

conversations about dementia frequently centre around memory decline and confusion, widespread misconceptions shape public understanding

Barratt, 2015

representation in the media of those with dementia is limited, but even so, primary focus is on fragility and decline

Shoker, 2020

some centenarians during COVID showed great resilience and strong recovery. Challenges idea that ageing inevitably leads to decline

Levy, 2009

stereotype embodiment theory - we internalise society's image. Age stereotypes absorbed across the lifespan, shape self-concept. This can become a self-fulfilling prophecy, shaping how we actually age.

Pikhartova et al., 2016

8 year study.

Participants given stereotypes e.g. old age is lonely, found that actual belief formed from the stereotype, was enough to make participant actually report being lonely 8 years later, even when controlling for socio-demographic factors

Coudin, 2010

stereotype embodiment leads to more dependent/help seeking behaviour

Age UK, 2013

in healthcare, older adults often addressed with less patience, engagement, respect - sends message that older people are less competent or less valuable, leads older adults to see themselves as burdens

Batson, 2003

concept of elderspeak/babytalk in healthcare - strips older adults of their adult identity and replaces it with one of dependency and incompetence

Wada et al., 2015

popular culture stereotypes portray older adults as asexual or undesirable - but sexual identity doesn't disappear with age

Relate, 2021

67% of over 65s felt their age group is almost never represented in the media when it comes to sex and intimacy

Heywood et al., 2019

stereotypes don't reflect the diversity of sexual experiences that are often reported in older populations

Castaldo et al., 2025

in care homes, institutional taboo, staff discomfort, lack of training actively restrict sexual expression

- this denies older adults autonomy, reinforcing identities of dependency and desexualisation

Harris et al., 2018

Older workers face age-related bias by employers

(their identity as skilled, capable workers is questioned - being overlooked in favour of younger candidates reinforces the idea that ageing = decline)

Abrams et al., 2016

biased experiences in the workplace result in negative self-stigma, which can reduce motivation, older workers may withdraw or accept discrimination

Levy and Langer, 1992

Asian cultures traditionally revere and greatly respect elderly people

Lou et al., 2013

found that Chinese students held more negative views than American counterparts regarding older adults

Thrum et al., 2019

intellectual disability is common for people with autism - 1 in 3

Mansour et al., 2025

many older adults grew up before autism was widely recognised, meaning their identities were often shaped by:

- being labelled as 'difficult' or a 'nuisance'

- pressure to appear 'normal'

- lack of understanding from others

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late diagnosis often triggers identity re-evaluation, as individuals reinterpret past experiences through lens of autism

Stewart and Happe, 2025

96% of autistic people in old age are undiagnosed

Taboas et al., 2023

asked autistic adults their preferred language - over 85% said identity first (autistic person).

This could be because it affirms autism as a valued integral part of identity, strengthening community belonging

Hand et al., 2010; Vivanti et al., 2025

autistic adults experience higher rates of physical and mental health conditions across their lifespan, including anxiety, depression, arthritis, cognitive impairment, dementia

Kow et al., 2025

autistic adults often experience poor retirement experiences, many retiring early/abruptly

Calasanti and King, 2007

caregiving is difficult for women as there's higher expectation

Russell, 2007

elderly male carers feel invisible, but are fully committed to the role - just use a different style (more managerial)

Schulz and Williamson, 1991

male carers are more depressed over time, whereas female carers more stable.

This could be because men tend to mask emotions to begin with, meaning they build up