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General Purposes of the brain
Basic survival (unconscious operations)
Conscious decisions/responses
Meninges
Membranes covering and protecting the CNS
3 layers of the meninges
Dura Mater
Arachnoid Mater
Pia Mater
Dura Mater
Attached to inner surface of the skull; protects the brain from displacement
Arachnoid Mater
Transports cerebrospinal fluid from brain ventricles back into blood vessels
Pia Mater
Attached tightly to brain
Cerebrospinal fluid
Clear liquid produced within ventricles (spaces within brain) and surround CNS
Protects and cushions the brain and spine
3 main regions of the brain
Brain stem
Cerebellum
Cerebrum
Brain stem
Basic life functions
Contains:
Pons: Motor control, sensory analysis
Medulla Oblongata: Breathing and heart rate
Cerebellum
Regulation and coordination of movement/balance/posture
Cerebrum
Higher level functioning
Covered with gyri (ridges) and sulci (grooves)
Contains: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes
Divided into 2 hemispheres
Connected by corpus callosum
Allows communication between sides
Gyri
Ridges
Sulci
Grooves
Corpus Callosum
Allows communication between sides
Cerebrum: Frontal Lobe
Executive functioning skills (planning, problem, solving, decision making, memory, ect.)
Long term memory
Cerebrum: Temporal Lobe
Auditory, speech, and memory
Contains:
Amygdala: “fight or fight”, memory, emotion, and fear
Hippocampus: learning and short term memory
Cerebrum: Parietal Lobe
Movement, recognition, perception of stimuli (touch, pressure, temperature, and pain)
Cerebrum: Occipital Lobe
Vision
Thalamus
Sensory information travels through before going to the cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus
Maintains homeostasis
Controls automatic responses and pituitary gland
Functions of Nervous System
Gathers info (sensory input)
Interprets info & determines response (integration)
Causes response (motor output)
Subdivisions of Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): all neurons lateral to CNS
Characteristics of neurons
Long life span
Amitotic (do not reproduce)
High metabolic rate (require constant energy and O2)
Neurons
Nerve cells that communicate
Neuroglia
Nerve cells that do NOT communicate
Characteristics of neuroglia
Nourish neurons to promote growth & health
Scaffolding for cells to climb
Remove debris from dead cells (after injury)
Role in neuron maturation (add myelin)
2 Types of Neuroglia
Astrocytes
Schwann Cells
Astrocytes
Nourish neurons
Maintain appropriate chemical environment for neurons (“mop up” toxins)
Schwann cells
Form myelin sheaths around axons
Myelin sheath
Made of lipids and proteins
Surrounds axon of neuron
Allows for quick nerve impulse transmission
At age 9-18 months, myelin forms in motor neurons to leg muscles – can start walking!
Multiple Sclerosis
Autoimmune disorder
WBC fight cells of myelin sheath —> causes scarring
Results in delayed or blocked signals that control muscle coordination, strength, sensation & vision
Types of neurons
Sensory
Interneuron
Motor neuron
Sensory Neurons
(afferent, PNS): receives info from outside and takes it to CNS
Interneuron Neurons
(CNS): coordinates info & determines response
Motor Neuron
(efferent, PNS): causes response
Micro Anatomy: Dendrites
Receive neurotransmitters
Micro Anatomy: Axon
Send neurotransmitters away to next neuron
Micro Anatomy: Nodes of Ranvier
Periodic gaps along the axon (no myelin)
Allows for rapid conduction of nerve impulses
Synapse
Space in between neurons
Allows for instantaneous communication throughout body
Olfactory Nerve
Smell
Oculomotor nerve
Eye movement
Trochlear Nerve
Eye movement
Abducens Nerve
Eye movement
Vestibulocochlear Nerve
Hearing and balance
Hypoglossal Nerve
Moves tongue
Accessory Nerve
Swallowing, controls superior torso muscles
Optic Nerve
Sight
Trigeminal Nerve
Facial sensation and chewing
Facial Nerve
Facial expression & taste
Glossopharyngeal Nerve
Taste, swallowing & secreting saliva
Vagus Nerve
Slows heart rate, stimulates digestion, taste
Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)
Executive functioning skills (analyze, prioritize, goal setting, risk evaluation, judgment, organization, adapting, flexibility in thought)
Reflective - considers feelings & response
Long term memory
Emotional management
Neural networks in the PFC mature last!
If info does not go to PFC, it goes to remaining 80% of brain which is reactive (fight vs flight)
How Information is Transferred: In the PNS
Begins in PNS —> Amygdala —> PFC (forms long term memory & learning occurs)
Amygdala is Sensitive to Stress
Stress greatly increases dopamine —> inhibits nerve impulses —> stops transfer of info to PFC
Regulate dopamine levels to regulate stress!
Stress…
Shrinks neural networks
Amygdala & Stress
Low stress —> low metabolic activity —> info goes to PFC (can learn)
High Stress —> hyper-metabolic —> info goes to reactive part of brain (NOT PFC: cannot learn)
Regulate Dopamine to…
Regulate Stress
PET Scans
Used to observe brain activity
Radioactive glucose injected —> travels to brain —> ”working” part of brain lights up on scan
Mentalizing
Making connections between “old” information & new circumstances
Neural Networks
Arrangement of neurons in a circuit; neurons pass electrical impulses on to the next neuron
Strengthened through use (otherwise will be pruned)
Maturation of network results in neuroplasticity
Electricity from impulse leads to
more dendrites (à more networks)
more myelin formation (more maturation)
more intentional synapse connections (better communication)
The more brain activity, the greater the neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity
Brain's ability to form new neural networks throughout life
Allows one to learn & adjust to new situations
Continual process of pruning & myelination
Ex. In a blind person, the occipital lobe assists with hearing and reading Braille
Pruning
“Weeding out” unused connections AND strengthening used connections based on experiences
Provides room for most important connections to grow & expand – makes brain more efficient
If pruning does not occur…
Leads to overgrowth of connections —> inefficient communication
Fetal Brain Development
Neurons generate at rate of 250,000/minute
Neurons pruned away by apoptosis —> prevents “overcrowded” brain ~50% of all neurons pruned before birth
Brain in Childhood
By age 3: pruning based on early childhood experiences begins
Immature brains
More densely packed cells & more synapses per cell than mature brains
Possible developmental problems occur if pruning does not occur
Alzheimer’s
Chronic and Progressive
Symptoms: MEMORY LOSS, difficulty performing tasks, misusing words, problems with judgment & reasoning, confusing time & place, and personality & mood changes
Degenerative
Fatal
Alzheimer’s: Amyloid Plaques Form
Healthy brain: beta amyloid is removed naturally
In Alzheimer’s: beta amyloid accumulates and forms plaques
Smaller “clumps” of beta amyloid can block synapses —> prevents communication —> neuron death
Alzheimer’s: Neurofibrillary Tangles Form
Healthy brain: tau protein forms microtubules to help transport nutrients between neurons
In Alzheimer’s: the tau protein is abnormal —> tangles —> microtubule collapses —> no nutrients —> neuron dies
Alzheimer’s: Hippocampus degenerates
Hippocampal cells lose connection to other cells & die
Causes STM loss & confusion
Alzheimer’s: Cerebral cortex degenerates
Neurons in cerebral cortex die
Causes: Language & judgment difficulties, complete loss of mental function, recognition & communication
Alzheimer’s: Changes in ACh
In normal aging: ACh decreases in brain à sporadic STM loss
In Alzheimer’s: ACh levels in brain decrease by 90% (due to enzyme inactivating ACh at synapse)
Spina Bifida
A neural tube defect (incomplete development of spine and/or meninges)
Causes of Spina Bifida
Combination of genetics & lack of folic acid during EARLY embryonic development
Results in incomplete fusion of spine during 1st month of pregnancy
Spina Bifida: Diagnostics: Pre-Natal
Fetus can be evaluated during 1st trimester:
Measure protein in mother’s blood (high levels indicate neural tube defect)
Ultrasound
3 Forms of Spina Bifida
Occulta
Meningocele
Myelomeningocele
Occulta Spina Bifida
Vertebrae malformed
Meningocele Spina Bifida
Meninges and CSF form a sac that protrudes through vertebrae
Myelomeningocele Spina Bifida
Spinal cord, spinal nerves, meninges & CSF protrude through vertebrae
Symptoms of Spina Bifida
Possible nerve damage leading to:
Paralysis
Bladder & bowel problems
Hydrocephalus (cerebrospinal fluid leakage causes brain to bulge)
Possible cognitive impairment
Spina Bifida Postnatal Treatment: (traditional)
Surgery to correct spine 24-48 hrs after birth
Shunt on brain to drain fluid & alleviate pressure from hydrocephalus
Spina Bifida Prenatal Surgery:
Surgeons open the uterus and repair the fetus’ spine during pregnancy (before 26 wks gestation)
Pros: decreases need for shunts & decreases brain swelling
Risks: increases chances for uterine rupture (miscarriage) & premature birth
Brain in Fetal Development:
Progesterone: helps neurons grow
Oxytocin: protects neurons from dying; “cuddling hormone” – plays role in social attachment
Alcohol affects on brain
Discoloration and developmental affects
Dopamine in teenage vs adult brains
Dopamine is at a lower concentration in teenage brains —> more impulsive reactions
Dopamine increases in adulthood —> more reflective; impulses controlled
Natural dopamine “boosts”…
Boost dopamine naturally through exercise, music, humor, social interactions, meditation, good sleeping habits, good eating habits
Biggest dopamine booster is intrinsic satisfaction
Stress on Brain
Stress greatly increases dopamine (too much inhibits nerve impulses)
Dopamine is good, but TOO much becomes BAD
Exercise on Brain
More oxygen in blood —> more oxygen to brain —> improved capillary health —> greater plasticity of frontal lobe
Releases protein (IGF-1) that stimulates neuron growth
Causes neurogenesis in hippocampus (memory)
Sleep on Brain
REM sleep (“dream sleep”) —> skills & habits are consolidated
Non REM sleep (“deep sleep”) —> facts & concepts are consolidated
Memory Consolidation occurs in Sleep
As adenosine builds up in brain & bonds to receptors, you feel tired
As you sleep, adenosine is recycled & ATP re-builds —> you wake up energized
Sleep and Pruning
Pruning occurs in sleep
The brain is not distracted and can evaluate synapses
During the day many temporary synapses form
Unused synapses are pruned away
Used (unpruned) synapses are larger & more stable (due to protein synthesis)
These are your most important memories/learnings
Caffeine on Brain
Caffeine inhibits receptors so adenosine cannot bond —> so you feel awake!
BUT…adenosine does not disappear so when the caffeine “wears off”, the adenosine build-up makes you feel very tired (“crash”)