ap psych - unit 2b vocab

Memory

The mental processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving information over time.

Encode

The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored and recalled in memory.

Retrieve

The process of accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness.

Sensory Memory

The brief storage of sensory information (sights, sounds, smells) immediately following perception, lasting only a few seconds.

Short-Term Memory

A temporary memory store that holds a small amount of information for a brief period, typically around 20–30 seconds.

Long-Term Memory

The permanent and potentially limitless storehouse of memory, containing knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Working Memory

An active form of short-term memory that processes and manipulates information for complex cognitive tasks, such as problem-solving or comprehension.

Explicit Memory

Also known as declarative memory; memories of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory for skills and conditioned responses, which we perform automatically without conscious thought.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort, often used to memorize complex information.

7±2

Refers to the average capacity of short-term memory, which can hold around 5 to 9 items.

Chunking

A memory strategy of grouping information into larger, meaningful units to make it easier to remember.

Hierarchy

Organizing information into a structured format, such as categories or levels, to enhance memory retention.

Mnemonic

Memory aids or techniques that use vivid imagery, patterns, or associations to enhance memory retention.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations in a familiar setting.

Link Method

A mnemonic strategy where items to be remembered are linked together with a visual or conceptual story.

Peg Word System

A mnemonic technique where items to be remembered are associated with a predetermined list of words, often rhyming with numbers (e.g., "one-bun, two-shoe").

Hippocampus

A part of the brain’s limbic system involved in forming, organizing, and storing memories, especially long-term memories.

Cerebellum

A brain structure that plays an important role in motor control and coordination, as well as in storing procedural memories for skills.

Flashbulb Memory

A vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event, often perceived as very accurate but not always reliable over time.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A process in the brain that strengthens the connection between neurons, or synapses, based on recent patterns of activity.

Recall

The ability to retrieve information without any cues, such as in a fill-in-the-blank test.

Recognition

The ability to identify previously learned information when presented with it, as in a multiple-choice test.

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help trigger the retrieval of a memory, such as sounds, smells, or associations.

Priming

The activation of certain associations in memory, often unconsciously, which can influence responses or perceptions.

Context Effects

The tendency to recall information better when in the same context or environment as when it was learned.

Next-In-Line Effect

The phenomenon where people have trouble remembering information presented just before they are about to perform, often due to anxiety or distraction.

Spacing Effect

The finding that studying information over spaced intervals improves long-term retention better than cramming.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember the first (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list better than the middle items.

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new memories after a brain injury, while retaining old memories from before the injury.

Retrograde Amnesia

The loss of memories from before a brain injury, while the ability to form new memories remains intact.

Forgetting

The inability to retrieve information that was previously stored in memory.

Tip of the Tongue

A state where a person feels they know something but cannot immediately recall it, often recalling partial information.

Proactive Interference

When older information disrupts the recall of newer information.

Retroactive Interference

When new information interferes with the recall of older information.

Misinformation Effect

The tendency for post-event information to distort one's memory of an event, especially when the information is misleading.

Repression

In psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism where the mind unconsciously pushes away painful or traumatic memories, thoughts, or feelings to avoid distress.

Source Amnesia

The inability to remember where or how previously learned information was acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge itself.

False Memory Syndrome

A condition in which a person’s identity and relationships are affected by strongly believed, but false memories of traumatic experiences.

Thinking

The process of mentally manipulating information, including concepts, images, words, and rules, to form judgments, solve problems, and make decisions.

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people that help organize information and facilitate thinking.

Category Hierarchies

Levels of organization within concepts, from broad, general categories to more specific subcategories.

Prototypes

The best or most typical example of a category, which helps to quickly categorize new information.

Convergent Thinking

A cognitive process in which a person focuses on finding a single, correct answer to a problem.

Divergent Thinking

A cognitive process in which a person generates multiple, unique solutions to a problem, often associated with creativity.

Expertise

Specialized knowledge or skill in a particular area, developed through experience, training, and practice.

Imaginative Thinking

The ability to see things in novel ways, make connections, and think creatively, which is crucial for innovation.

Adventurous Personality

A trait characterized by a willingness to take risks, explore new experiences, and accept ambiguity.

Intrinsic Motivation

The drive to do something because of personal interest, enjoyment, or satisfaction, rather than for external rewards.

Creative Environment

A setting that encourages creativity, supports open-mindedness, and allows for exploration and risk-taking.

Algorithm

A step-by-step, logical procedure or formula for solving a problem, which guarantees a solution if followed correctly.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making, but do not guarantee a correct solution.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs.

Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a new perspective, which can hinder problem-solving.

Mental Set

The tendency to approach problems using a mindset or method that worked in the past, even if it’s not effective for the current problem.

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to perceive objects as only functioning in their usual way, which can limit creative problem-solving.

Representative Heuristic

A mental shortcut where people judge the likelihood of an event based on how closely it matches their existing stereotypes or prototypes, rather than on actual probability.

Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut where people estimate the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind, often influenced by recent or vivid memories.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident in one’s own knowledge, abilities, or predictions than is objectively justified.

Exaggerated Fear

An irrational and heightened fear of something, often due to media exposure or personal experiences, even when the actual risk is low.

Language

A system of symbols, sounds, and grammar used for communication, enabling humans to convey thoughts, emotions, and information.

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound in a language that can distinguish one word from another (e.g., the sounds "p" and "b" in "pat" and "bat").

Morpheme

The smallest units of meaning in a language, which can be a word or a part of a word, such as a prefix or suffix (e.g., "un-" in "undo" or "dog" in "dogs").

Syntax

The set of rules that govern the structure of sentences, specifying the correct order and arrangement of words in a sentence.

Semantics

The aspect of language concerned with meaning, including the meanings of words, phrases, and sentences.

Grammar

The system of rules in a language that allows people to communicate and understand others, covering syntax and semantics.

Babbling Stage

The stage of language development (around 4-6 months) where infants make spontaneous sounds that are not yet words, including phonemes from multiple languages.

One-Word Stage

The stage in language development (around 12 months) when a child speaks mostly in single words to convey a full meaning, such as saying "milk" to mean "I want milk."

Two-Word Stage

The stage in language development (around 18-24 months) when a child starts to speak in two-word phrases, often resembling simple sentences (e.g., "want cookie").

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech stage in which a child uses mostly nouns and verbs in a concise way, similar to a telegram (e.g., "go car" instead of "I want to go in the car").

Inborn Universal Grammar

Noam Chomsky's theory that humans are born with an innate understanding of the basic principles of grammar, which helps them learn language naturally.

Statistical Learning

The process by which infants and young children learn language by detecting patterns in the sounds, words, and grammar they hear.

Critical Periods

Specific times during development when the brain is particularly receptive to acquiring certain skills, such as language, after which it becomes much harder.

Linguistic Determinism

The theory that language shapes the way people think and perceive the world; proposed by Benjamin Lee Whorf, suggesting that different languages create different ways of thinking.

Aphasia

A language disorder caused by damage to specific areas of the brain, affecting speech, comprehension, or both.

Broca's Area

A region in the frontal lobe of the brain associated with speech production; damage here can cause ___’s aphasia, where speech is impaired but comprehension is relatively preserved.

Wernicke's Area

A region in the temporal lobe involved in language comprehension; damage here can cause ___’s aphasia, where speech may be fluent but lacks meaning and comprehension is impaired.