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if it is based on empirical evidence, peer-reviewed globally to reduce bias, and continuously reviewed using the scientific method.
experiments with cathode ray tubes, noting that a shadow appeared on the positive electrode, leading to the conclusion that particles were traveling from negative to positive.
more detailed understanding of cathode rays and calculated the charge ratio for negatively charged particles, naming them electrons and developing the plum pudding model.
What was Rutherford's experiment?
fired alpha particles at gold foil, expecting them to pass through, but instead observed deflections indicating that the atom is mostly empty space and contains a dense nucleus with protons.
identified the neutron, a subatomic particle with approximately the same mass as a proton but no charge, substantiating Rutherford’s hypothesis.
consists of a dense nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with electrons in 3-dimensional orbitals surrounding it.
when they gain or lose electrons; losing electrons makes them more positive, while gaining electrons makes them negative.
vertical columns on the periodic table, also known as families, with elements in the same group displaying similar properties.
found in groups 1-12 on the left side of the periodic table.
shiny, malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity.
dull, brittle, and poor conductors of heat and electricity, located on the right side of the periodic table.
indicates the identity of the atom and the number of protons.
indicates the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.
has 6 protons, 6 electrons, and 6 neutrons.
when the number of protons equals the number of electrons.
introduces orbitals as complex, 3-dimensional shapes representing locations where electrons are likely to be found.
are always found outside the nucleus of an atom.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6.
is a quantum of energy, representing a specific packet of energy.
are directly related; as one increases, so does the other, while wavelength is inversely related to both.
are in their lowest energy levels and natural state.
is one that has absorbed energy and moved to a higher energy level.
absorbs a photon of energy to transition
every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron before any orbital is doubly occupied.
the 2s sublevel can only hold a maximum of 2 electrons.
indicates the energy level of electrons and ranges from 1 to 7.
the corresponding ion is smaller than the original atom.
located in the bottom left corner of the periodic table.
increases from left to right across a period due to increasing effective nuclear charge.
values become more negative as you go from left to right across a period.
Electronegativity increases as atomic radius decreases across a period.
makes the ion larger than its respective atom.
Halogens, particularly fluorine
What happens to ionic radius when gaining electrons?
increases the ion's size compared to the atom.
What are isotopes?
are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
What is a chemical bond?
is a lasting attraction between atoms that enables the formation of chemical compounds.
What is the difference between ionic and covalent bonds?
Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, while covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms.
What is an alkali metal?
are highly reactive metals found in group 1 of the periodic table, with one electron in their outermost shell.
What is a transition metal?
are elements found in groups 3-12 of the periodic table, known for their ability to form variable oxidation states and colored compounds.
What is a covalent compound?
is formed when two or more nonmetals share electrons to achieve stability.
What are noble gases?
are elements in group 18 of the periodic table that are inert and rarely react with other elements due to having full valence shells.
What does the octet rule state?
states that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to have eight electrons in their valence shell, achieving stability.
What is a supersaturated solution?
is a solution that contains more solute than it can normally hold at a given temperature.
What are the types of mixtures?
homogeneous (uniform composition) and heterogeneous (non-uniform composition).
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