A-Level History: The Revolution from October 1789 to the Directory 1795

- Le Chapelier (June 1791), which made strikes illegal and banned trade unions to incentivise businesses - bourgoisie focused

- Nationalisation of church land – some bought by the peasantry (reducing wealth inequality and bringing people into the French Revolution) – but generally wealthy purchased more

- The creation of assignat provided an immediate solution to the financial problems but its overprinting – especially during wars – led to rampant inflation

- Abolishing indirect taxes such as the Gabelle in March 1790 however, tax revenue may have fallen since the wealthy emigres left

- August decrees led to the abolition of feudal dues but still had to pay compensation

What were economic reforms made between 1789-91?

- right the vote given to active citizens (61%) in new constitution

- Decentralised power by dividing France into 83 departments and electing 1m to councils e.g. for tax collection, however the loyalty to the monarchy in local areas led to some tensions

- new constitution made in September 1791 - which meant the end of absolute power but the King still had significant power e.g. veto

What were political reforms between 1789-91?

- Church land nationalised November 1789

- the civil constitution of the clergy (12th July 1790) were attempts to control and reduce the power of the Church (and later Clerical Oath (27th November 1790) - 50% refused leading to a divide between the clergy as there were no refractory priests

EV: this led to rebellion in rural areas such as the Vendee Rebellion in February 1793

- The reduction in money, no tithes were collected, meant less poor relied by the Church (2 million people begging)

What were reforms to the Church from 1789-91?

20th June 1791

- Escaping the palace of Tuileries as he regretting his acceptance of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy – showed unwillingness to go along with the change that was occurring with the revolution

- 24th June 1791 30k signatures to NA calling for King's dismissal – Jacobins changed to republicanism (persuaded by Cordeliers)

- TURNING POINT FOR REPUBLICANISM

What was the Flight to Varennes, and how did it increase republicanism?

17th July 1791

- 50k people at republican gathering (consequence of the Flight to Varennes)

- Temporary victory for N.A as radical leaders, e.g., Danton went into hiding after the National Guard killed 50 people

- In the long-term increased tensions – republicanism didn't decrease (republicanism had grown from the 30k signature at the Flight to Varennes from 50k)

What was the Champs de Mars massacre, and why was it significant?

August 1791

Prussia and Austria said they will uses the 'forces necessary' to restore monarchy

- HOWEVER: unlike Brunswick Manifesto, France was not at war with these countries and Louis had accepted the new constitution at around the same time

What was the declaration of Pillnitz why didn't it cause much uproar?

- wanted to restore monarchy – shown through the declaration of Pillnitz

- fears of counter-revolution from émigrés based in Austria

- hence needed to protect the revolution + also spread it

Why did war break out in 1792: role of Austria and Prussia

Lafayette was disillusioned by the failure of the rev. To bring about real political stability, so he thought that a quick, successful war against Austria would enhance the authority of the King - LINK to the role of the French monarchy as the King's prestige had dropped particularly after the Flight to Varennes

Weakness: He also believed it would bring about personal prestige after his involvement in the Champs de Mars massacre

Why did war break out in 1792: creating political stability within France

- lack of army discipline due to emigration of high-ranking officers and 3 years of unrest – hence why only a month into the war (May 1792 – war started in April), commanders of the French army were advising Louis to make peace

- due to war going badly, rumours circulated about an 'Austrian Committee', which were solidified by the Brunswick manifesto

- BRUNSWICK MANIFESTO (25th July 1792 ) DIRECTLY LED TO THE STORMING OF THE TUILERIES

Why did Louis get overthrown: war going badly / foreign powers

- Austrian committee

- Vetoing laws proposed by the Girondins such as deporting refractory priests – which led to the June 1792 storming of the tuileries

- Dismissed some Girondin ministers June 1792 after they tried to object his veto

- 20th June – the Palace of Tuileries was stormed with a crowd of 8,000 chanting 'down with the veto' = however in the short- run, he was able to convince the crowd of his commitment to change by wearing a bonnet rouge without having to withdraw his veto

Why did Louis get overthrown: anti-revolution

- 1st Jacobin victory in the convention, leaving the Girondins very hostile and branded as Royalists e.g., Brissot hardly spoke in the Convention thereafter

- the rise of the Jacobin

What was the significance of Louis's execution to increasing tensions within the political clubs

September 1792

- Due to growing concern that overcrowded prisons containing many counter-revolutionary suspects may escape and hand over the city to the Prussians over 1100 of the 2600 in Parisian jails were murdered; however, only 1/4 of these people were priests and nobles

- Not stopped, as the National Guard did not want to attack the sans-culottes – showcasing the increasing power of the mob

- moderates saw the Jacobins and sans-culottes as 'bloodthirsty savages'

What were the September Massacres and why did it radicalise the revolution?

March 1793

- Government ordered a 300k levy of troops in February 1793, caused a massive uprising in Vendee

- Countryside: 'Civil constitution of the clergy' hated as largely Catholic

- Big threat as by May 30k troops withdrawn to deal with Vendée Rebellion

HOWEVER: not a serious threat to government, which was in Paris – guerrilla warfare rather than planned attacks

What was the Vendee Rebellion?

More assignats were printed which reduced the value already in circulation by 50% by February 1793 pushing up prices

Harvest in 1792 was good but bread was scarce

High prices and scarcity led to widespread riots against grain stores and demands from the sans-culottes for price controls and requisitioning

EXACERBATED BY THE WAR - GOING BADLY IN FEBRUARY 1793

What were economic problems in 1792 and 1793

June 1793

- 80k National Guards directed a cannon at the Convention hall—to avoid another massacre, the Convention reluctantly accepted arresting 29 Girondin deputies

- This was done to appease the sans-culottes who had felt betrayed by the Girondins for trying to prevent Louis' execution, and the Girondins clashed with Robespierre who actively encouraged the sans-culottes to rise up against the Girondins

What was the purging of the Girondins

Purging of the Girondins – 2nd June 1793

New constitution – June 1793, which allowed for universal male suffrage and the right to insurrection, marking a clear break-away from the more moderate constitution of 1791

Economic concessions, including a maximum price on grain and anti-hoarding laws to help with food shortages in the city, contrast the government's laissez-faire approach to the economy

Levee en masse – August 1793 (widespread conscription), as this forced the recruitment of all unmarried men 18-25 into the army – marking the appearance of total war in France where all French resources were used to fight and win the war (the Convention agreed with this, as it was their priority to protect the Revolution against its enemies in Europe)

What concessions were made by the Convention to appease the sans-culottes?

- The threat of violence, the journées of 1792, and belief in the right to insurrection led to the growing dominance of the sans-culottes shown through the September Massacres and the purging of the Girondins.

- law of suspects (september 1793) allowed the arrest of hoarders and general maximum (september 1793) put in place price-controls

- Sans-culottes had almost absolute power – Jacobins owed them; politicians working in Paris felt their influence.

LINK: the Convention felt pressured to alleviate discontent amongst the sans-culottes because they want to prevent further rebellion and they need the sans-culottes to fight in the war and the purging of the Girondins led to the Convention feeling threatened

Why did the Terror happen: discontent of the sans-culottes

The official Terror - controlled by the CPS and CGS - centred in Paris whose victims came before the Revolutionary Tribunal

Terror in the areas of federal revolt e.g. Vendee and Lyon

In other parts of France, under the control of watch committees and the revolutionary armies

From January to May 1794 troops shot almost every peasant, burned crops and raped women leaving Vendee as a depopulated wasteland - hence 53% of all execution during the Terror was in Vendee

1,900 victims were guillotined/cannoned after the Lyon rebellion

72% of executions where in rebel areas of West and South East

unsuccessful as 59% of those killed were peasants and urban workers. Provincial repression increased tensions - federal revolts occurred because they felt Paris dominance. It caused long-term resentment in the countryside e.g. Vendee. However it was successful as the government. Had managed to crush revolts by the end of 1793 - 'pacification of the Rebellion'.

What was the political terror?

Law of Suspects – September 1793 – led to the formation of committees filled with Jacobin supporters could purge local administration, removing moderates – making it a symbol of the Terror at local level – most rural communes had one by the end of the year

Dechristianisation – between 1792 and 1794

By Spring 1794 most Churches were closed, bells and silver removed and November 1794 all Churches in Paris were closed

10% + priests renounced their priesthood – deeply resented in the villages, as this was the aspect of the Terror that affected them most

What were 2 major hated parts of the Terror?

Dec 1793

- CPS and consequently Robespierre could rule with near-dictatorial power

- reduced power of the National Convention and Sans Culottes

- CPS now controlled revolutionary tribunals

What is the 14 Law Frimaire?

Representatives on a mission: they would help to restore public order in areas where violence had broken out, send any suspects to the Revolutionary Tribunal.

Summary execution decree: March 1793 – which allowed the almost immediate execution of captured rebels without the need to send them to the Tribunal in Paris.

THIS ACCOUNTED FOR THE MAJORITY OF EXECUTIONS – MORE SO THAN THE TRIBUNAL.

Revolutionary Tribunal: March 1793 – was established in Paris, which was a court specifically established to try anyone accused of involvement in the counter-revolution.

Watch committees: established in every town to monitor activities of locals

Most of these measures only applied in areas of France in open rebellion and thus were not necessarily implemented uniformly across the whole country.

CPS: By September 1793 it contained only 12 men – the most powerful of whom was Robespierre – THEY WERE MORE POWERFUL THAN THE CONVENTION AND THE CGS

What were the machinery of the terror?

- set common people against each other - peasants were hated for bringing about the General Maximum (September 1793) as farmers now had too low profit margins and death penalty imposed on food hoarding

- successful as people were fed and assignat increase by 26% in December 1793

- not successful as the enrages were forcing economic demand upon the Convention countering their own laissez-faire attitudes

Impact of the Terror: economic

Vendee became a depopulated wasteland, it caused provincial repression with 1900 victims guillotined / cannoned after the Lyon Rebellion. Mass executions with ½ million suspects arrested and died in prison, 53% of 16,600 executions in Vendee.

Unsuccessful as 59% of those killed were peasants and urban workers. Tension where federal revolt caused by feelings of Parisian dominance. Long-term resentment in the countryside of the government. Violence, e.g. Vendee. Successful as gov. Had managed to crush revolts by the end of 1793 - 'pacification of the Rebellion

Impact of the terror: political

Execution of the Herbertistes – sans-culottes strongly supported them and CPS exploited this opportunity to suppress some of the power of the mob

All popular clubs closed – Commune purged and filled with supporters of Robespierre and all representatives-on-mission recalled to Paris

Choosing to raise a maximum on prices in March 1794 and a maximum on wages in July infuriated them. It led to a fall in wages by as much as 50%

LINK: lack of sans-culottes support allowed the government to oppose Robespierre as he less of a threat

Reasons for Robespierre's downfall: loss of support of the sans-culottes

Created 'cult of supreme being' in June 1794 – unpopular with Christians and atheists alike

Especially prevalent after the festival of Supreme being in Paris 8th June 1794 – seen even more as a dictator – 'the bastard isn't satisfied with being the boss; he's got to be God as well'’

LINK: doing this to appease the sans-culottes further emphasises the importance of sans-culotte support

Reasons for Robespierre's downfall: catholic opposition

- moderates resented purging of the girondins and the law of prairial

- fear that Robespierre may denounce other members of government as conspirators as he did to Danton so they combined against him, accusing him of dictatorship

- purged key allies Danton and Desmoulins – executed April 1794

- The Law of 22 Prairial (June 1794) removed the right to a defence in trials and vastly increased executions — this terrified even his own supporters in the Convention.

- The cult of supreme being made politicians think Robespierre crazy and narcissist.

Reasons for Robespierre's downfall: politicians

They were only united on wanting to seek revenge against Robespierre and a desire to maintain the Republic as they had been involved in a regicide

They were seen as the people who simply removed Robespierre, not as leaders with a clear vision for France.

Sans-culottes distrusted them (seen as too moderate), while royalists and conservatives thought they were still too radical.

Why was the Thermidorian regime so weak? - lack of legitmacy

20 TH MAY 1795

Large crowd still demanding bread - deputy killed and crowd increasingly hostile to government as failed to solve issue

Deputy's head placed on spike and sent to the Convention

Although forces loyal to the crowd gathered to confront the crowd the following day no one was actually prepared to fire so crisis only resolved when the Convention agreed to set up a food commission

Convention then used further repression - 70 involved executed and 6000 arrested (LAST TIME SANS CULOTTES HAVE POWER SHOWN AS NEXT YEAR SIMILAR ECONOMIC ISSUES BUT NO VIOLENT UPRISING)

First time the regular army used against people in 1789 - shows the decisive intervention and new dependence on the military

Opposition to the Thermidorians: Prairial Uprising

- October 1795 Vendemarire uprising included some royalists supporters of Louis XVIII but majority workers angry about continued food shortages and unpopular ideas circulating about the law of ⅔ (the 3 new councils would be made up of old members of the Convention as they were scared of a royalist resurgence and wanted to thus secure the Republic)

25000 crowd marched on Convention to seize power but were defeated by 7800 gov troops who had cannons and Napoleon - suppressed rising quickly with 300 killed - 'whiff of grapehsot'

IMPORTANT: LAST TIME ELECTED ASSEMBLY WAS INTIMIDATED BY A PARISIAN MOB UNTIL 1830

Opposition to the Thermidorians: Vendemaire uprising

In Paris gangs attacked former Jacobins, militants and sans-culottes

Violence was worse in provinces - in the south in 1795 there were 2000 massacres and street murders and in the West guerilla warfare flared up again in Vendee

Little political ideology just revenge

Whilst in some areas of France it was dealt more harshly - with troops called from the army to suppress the unrest but little effort was used to contain it in some areas so the violence continued in these areas going into 1795/96

Opposition to the Thermidorians: the white terror

Annual elections meant there were less chance of another oligrachy

Tiered voting system further reduced sans-culottes power as they had restricted voting rights

Longest surviving gov (1795-99) but this was largely due to apathy of the public towards the revolution

Reformed the tax system to improve the economic system in the short-run

What are strengths of the Directory?

Yearly elections led to constant political turnover, creating instability and short-termism.

There was no mechanism to resolve disputes between the Council of 500 and the Council of Ancients, which often resulted in deadlock.

The Coup of Fructidor (1797) saw the Directory use the army to annul election results due to fears of a royalist resurgence.

The Coup of Floreal (1798) demonstrated the rising threat of neo-Jacobins — the Directory responded by purging the legislature, again undermining democracy.

Increasing censorship

Targeted areas seen as resisting government authority.

What are weaknesses of the Directory?: political instability and structural problems

Jacobins stormed the Tuileries in June, Cordeliers were involved in the Champs de Mars petition of 50,000 and the

Champs de Mars massacre – although Danton and others went into hiding, made the Assembly believe that Republicanism had ended, it showed that a republic was necessary for others. LINK reignited by war

Louis was overthrown in the storming of Tuileries 10th August 1792 by Jacobins/armed revolutionaries who wanted to dispose the king and abolish the monarchy

Why did Louis get overthrown: growth in republicanism

Created of the Committee of Public Safety by the Girondins in March 1793,

Some politicians encouraged terror (Collot d’Herbois)

The members of the Plain supported/granted more extreme measures to defeat counter-revolutionaries

A more radical, republican mood created across France after death of Louis

Why did the Terror happen: politicians

• Robespierre’s rise to power in the Committee of Public Safety (mid-1793) gave him control over revolutionary justice.

• He believed revolutionary virtue required terror to root out enemies and secure the Republic.

• Helped introduce the Law of Suspects (Sept 1793), broadening the scope of who could be arrested as “enemies”.

• Supported the establishment of revolutionary tribunals to speed up trials and executions.

• Gave power to sans culottes that started the terror

Why did the Terror happen: Robespierre

• War with Europe escalates (1793): France declares war on Britain, Spain, and the Dutch Republic → fear of invasion and foreign-backed counter-revolution.

• Vendée Rebellion (March 1793): Massive royalist and anti-revolutionary uprising in western France triggered by conscription and resentment toward dechristianisation.

• Federalist Revolts (June–August 1793): Girondin-supporting cities like Lyon, Marseille, and Bordeaux rise against Jacobin centralisation

• Committee of Public Safety: created to target “enemies of the revolution.

Why did the Terror happen: Threats to the revolution