A-Level History: The Revolution from October 1789 to the Directory 1795

What were economic reforms made between 1789-91?

- Loi le Chapelier (June 1791) which made strikes illegal and banned trade unions to incentivise businesses

- Nationalisation of church land - where 52% of Nord land bought by the peasantry (reducing wealth inequality and bringing people into the French Revolution), but generally wealthy purchased more

- The creation of assignat provided an immediate solution to the financial problems but its overprinting - especially during wars led to rampant inflation

- Abolishing indirect taxes such as the Gabelle in March 1790, however tax revenue may have fallen since the wealthy emigres left

- August decrees led to the abolition of feudal dues but still had to pay compensation

What were political reforms between 1789-91?

- right the vote given to active citizens (61%) in new constitution

- Decentralised power by dividing France into 83 departments and electing 1m to councils e.g. for tax collection, however the loyalty to the monarchy in local areas led to some tensions

- new constitution made in September 1791 - which meant the end of absolute power but the King still had significant power e.g. veto

What were reforms to the Church from 1789-91?

- Church land nationalised November 1789

- the civil constitution of the clergy (12th July 1790) were attempts to control and reduce the power of the Church (and later Clerical Oath (27th November 1790) - 50% refused leading to a divide between the clergy as there were no refractory priests

EV: this led to rebellion in rural areas such as the Vendee Rebellion in February 1793

- The reduction in money, no tithes were collected, meant less poor relied by the Church (2 million people begging)

What were judicial reforms made from 1789-91?

- trial by jury rather than arbitrary arrest - which was hated

- August 1790 - a uniform legal system was established within France

- More humane penal code - suspects could only be held 1 day without going to trial

EV: some areas had a shortage of judges and trained magistrates e.g. Vendee and Provence

What was the Flight to Varenne and how did it increase republicanism?

20th June 1791

- Escaping the palace of Tuileries as he regretting his acceptance of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy - showed unwillingness to go along with the change that was occurring with the revolution

- 24th June 1791 30k signatures to NA calling for King's dismissal - Jacobins changed to republicanism (persuaded by Cordeliers)

- TURNING POINT FOR REPUBLICANISM

What was the Champs de Mars massacre, and why was it significant?

17th July 1791

- 50k (Cordeliers) had a republican gathering (consequence of the Flight to Varennes)

- Temporary victory for N.A as radical leaders e.g. Danton went into hiding after the National Guard killed 50 people

- In the long-term increased tensions - republicanism didn't decrease (republicanism had grown from the 30k signature at the Flight to Varennes from 50k)

What was the declaration of Pillnitz why didn't it cause much uproar?

August 1791

Prussia and Austria said they will uses the 'forces necessary' to restore monarchy

- HOWEVER: unlike Brunswick Manifesto France was not at war with these countries and Louis had accepted the new constitution at around the same time

Why did war break out in 1792: role of Austria and Prussia

- wanted to restore monarchy - shown through the declaration of Pillnitz

- fears of counter-revolution from emigres based in Koblenz (Austria)

- hence needed to protect the revolution

Why did war break out in 1792: creating political stability within France

Lafayette was disillusioned by the failure of the rev. To bring about real political stability, so he thought that a quick, successful war against Austria would enhance the authority of the King - LINK to the role of the French monarchy as the King's prestige had dropped particularly after the Flight to Varennes

Weakness: He also believed it would bring about personal prestige after his involvement in the Champs de Mars massacre

Why did Louis get overthrown: war going badly / revolutionary war in general

- lack of army discipline due to emigration of high-ranking officers and 3 years of unrest - hence why only a month into the war (May 1792 - war started in April) commanders of the French army were advising Louis to make peace

- due to war going badly rumours circulated about an 'Austrian Committee' which were solidified by the Brunswick manifesto

- BRUNSWICK MANIFESTO DIRECTLY LED TO THE STORMING OF THE TUILERIES

Why did Louis get overthrown: anti-revolution

- Austrian committee

- Vetoing laws proposed by the Girondins such as deporting refractory priests - which led to the June 1793 storming of the tuileries

- Dismissed some Girondin ministers June 1792 after they tried to object his veto

- 20th June - the Palace of Tuileries was stormed with a crowd of 8,000 chanting 'down with the veto' = however in the short-run he was able to convince the crowd of his commitment to change by wearing a bonnet rouge without having to withdraw his veto

Why did Louis get overthrown: popular action

- 'la patrie en danger' led to increased power of the sans-culottes as there was increased pressure to re-evaluate voting rights so that all fighting could vote in the country

- federes - provided support for Robespierre to address the Jacobin Club July 1791 for a complete abandonment of the 1791 constitution and a new national Convention

HOWEVER: the Girondins still offered to help Louis if he recalled the exiled Girondin ministers as they wanted to avoid a violent uprising which would cause further problems for the Assembly - has some support. DESPITE THIS, Louis still refused

Why did Louis get overthrown: foreign powers

the Brunswick Manifesto - 25th July 1792 was similar to the Declaration of Pillnitz but was taken more seriously as during war and after Louis had vetoed laws (for the first time!!). 'Exacting vengeance' was supposed to support Louis but instead made all remaining support for the monarchy in France to disappear as 47 of the 48 Paris sections immediately demanded that the LA abolish the monarchy for good

HOWEVER - the LA rejected the demand. DESPITE THIS with the increasing power of the working class a violent uprising would facilitate a new Republic

What was the significance of Louis's execution to increasing tensions within the political clubs

- 1st Montgnard victory in the convention leaving the Girondins very hostile and branded as Royalists, e.g. Brissot hardly spoke in the Convention thereafter

- the rise of the Montgnards

What were the September Massacres and why did it radicalise the revolution?

September 1792

- Due to growing concern that overcrowded prisons containing many counter-revolutionary suspects may escape and hand over the city to the Prussians over 1100 of the 2600 in Parisian jails were murdered - however only 1/4 of these people were priests and nobles

- Not stopped as the National Guard did not want to attack the sans-culottes - showcasing the increasing power of the mob

- moderates saw the Montagnards and sans-culottes as 'bloodthirsty savages'

What is evidence that the war situation had improved by the end of 1792 and during 1793?

- Battle of Valmy - September 1792 was first major success - largely due to 'la patrie en danger'

- Decree of Fraternity in November 1792 - said they would support any country who wanted to overthrow the monarchy (spread the revolution)

- Lazare Carnot reorganised the army during Summer 1793 - hence being known as 'organiser of victor' when he was sent to Bayonne to defend against potential attack of Spain

What was the Vendee Rebellion?

March 1793

- Government ordered a 300k levy of troops in February 1793, failure in Neerwinden March 1793, caused a massive uprising in Vendee

- Countryside: 'Civil constitution of the clergy' hated as largely Catholic

- Big threat as by May 30k troops withdrawn to deal with Vendee Rebellion

HOWEVER: not a serious threat to government which was in Paris - guerilla warfare rather than planned attacks

What were economic problems in 1792 and 1793

More assignats were printed which reduced the value already in circulation by 50% by February 1793 pushing up prices

Harvest in 1792 was good but bread was scarce

High prices and scarcity led to widespread riots against grain stores and demands from the sans-culottes for price controls and requisitioning

EXACERBATED BY THE WAR - GOING BADLY IN FEBRUARY 1793

What was the purging of the Girondins

June 1793

- 80k National Guards directed a cannon at the Convention hall - to avoid another massacre the Convention reluctantly accepted arresting 29 Girdondin deputies

- This was done to appease the sans-culottes who had felt betrayed by the Girondins for trying to prevent Louis' exceution and the Girondins clashed with Robespierre who actively encouraged the sans-culottes to rise up against the Girondins

What concessions were made by the Convention to appease the sans-culottes?

Purging of the Girondins - 2nd June 1793

New constitution - June 1793 which allowed for universal male suffrage and the right to insurrection marking a clear break-away from the more moderate constitution of 1791

Economic concessions including a maximum price on grain and anti-hoarding laws to help with food shortages in the city - contrasting the government's laissez-faire approach to the economy

Levee en masse - August 1793 (widespread conscription) which went further than 'la patrie en danger' as this forced the recruitment of all unmarried men 18-25 into the army - marking the appearance of total war in France where all French resources were used to fight and win the war (the Convention agreed with this as it was their priority to protect the Revolution against its enemies in Europe)

Why did the Terror happen: fear of counter-revolution

gov. believed that the Vendee Rebellion in Feb 1793 was counter-revolutionary since it was because of conscription and religion

There was suspicion of Girondin ministers - many of these other uprisings were because of their representation being killed during the Purging of the Girondins (June 1793) as it invalidated their votes. MAJORLY PERCEPTIONS + PARANOIA

Brunswick manifesto, Austrian committee - with the secret documents in the Armoire de fer' implementing Louis in plots with foreign monarchs

LINK: it led to increased state repression as the gov perceived V.R as 'counter-revolutionary' and the government didn't want the sans-culottes to deal with it so state repression was the government's actions.

Why did the Terror happen: economic crisis/war

Ongoing food shortages from poor harvests especially in 1791 (LONG-TERM) and a series of food riots in Paris 1792. By mid-August the assignat was less than a 1 ⁄ 3 of face value and there was a further strain on resources created by the expansion of the Revolutionary wars - which was worsened by droughts reducing grain supplies into France by 75% - LINK TO WAR.

LINK: increased fear of mob action from growing discontent - e.g. food riots

- The emergence of the First Coalition (April 1792) meant that they were at war with most of Europe LINK TO GIRONDIN HATRED. This led to increased conscription which led to increased opposition and unrest such as the Vendee Rebellion.

LINK: it led to more opposition such as the V.R. and more sans-culottes going against the Girondins who supported the war. The strain for resources meant that more assignats were printed which reduced purchasing power - economic crises.

Why did the Terror happen: discontent of the sans-culottes

- the threat of violence, journees of 1792 and belief in the right to insurrection led to the growing dominance of the sans-culottes shown through the September Massacres and the purging of the Girondins.

- law of suspects (september 1793) allowed the arrest of hoarders and general maximum (september 1793) put in place price-controls

LINK: the Convention felt pressured to alleviate discontent amongst the sans-culottes because they want to prevent further rebellion and they need the sans-culottes to fight in the war and the purging of the Girondins led to the Convention feeling threatened

Who were the enrages?

extreme revolutionary group led by Jacques Roux which had considerable influence over the sans-culottes

As a priest, Roux was shocked seeing people starving in crowded areas and thus denounced the Convention when they didn't immediately deal with starvation

He proposed an Economic Terror - demanding the execution of hoarders who pushed up the price of grain and a purge of ex-nobles from the army

Robespierre wanted to get rid of him as he was threatening the Commune with direct action in the streets

As an influential figure in the 5th September 1793 journée which adopted a more extreme approach to ensure the movement of food in France, he got arrested

What was the economic terror?

Convention - due to pressure from Roux - imposed the death penalty for hoarding food in July

The Maximum (29th September 1793) set common people against each other as the rate was often below the cost of production for peasants while the sans-culottes wanted it so they could buy bread

Introduction of an armée revolutionaire consisting mainly of sans-culottes to ensure food supplies for Paris from provincial departments - grain requisitioning introduced

successful in the short-term as towns/armies were fed and the assignat worth 22% its face value in August rose to 48% in December 1793 . However, unsuccessful because the Enrages threatened Convention into making these demands that contrasted their own laissez-faire attitudes.

What was the political terror?

The official Terror - controlled by the CPS and CGS - centred in Paris whose victims came before the Revolutionary Tribunal

Terror in the areas of federal revolt e.g. Vendee and Lyon

In other parts of France, under the control of watch committees and the revolutionary armies

From January to May 1794 troops shot almost every peasant, burned crops and raped women leaving Vendee as a depopulated wasteland - hence 53% of all execution during the Terror was in Vendee

1,900 victims were guillotined/cannoned after the Lyon rebellion

72% of executions where in rebel areas of West and South East

unsuccessful as 59% of those killed were peasants and urban workers. Provincial repression increased tensions - federal revolts occurred because they felt Paris dominance. It caused long-term resentment in the countryside e.g. Vendee. However it was successful as the government. Had managed to crush revolts by the end of 1793 - 'pacification of the Rebellion'.

What were 2 major hated parts of the Terror?

Law of suspects - September 1793 - led to the formation of committees filled with Montagnard supporters could purge local administration, removing moderates - making it a symbol of the Terror at local level - most rural communes had one by the end of the year

Dechristianisation - between 1792 and 1794

By Spring 1794 most Churches were closed, bells and silver removed and November 1794 all Churches in Paris were closed

10% + priests renounced their priesthood - deeply resented in the villages as this was the aspect of the Terror that affected them most

What is the 14 Law Frimaire?

Dec 1793

- CPS and consequently Robespierre could no rule with near-dictatorial power

- reduced the power of Hebertists and the Indulgents - reduced power of the National Convention

- CPS now controlled revolutionary tribunals

What were the machinery of the terror?

CGS: they monitored surveillance over state security to prosecute counter revolutionists and report back to the Convention in order to take control of violence. They coordinated the activities of the representatives-on-missions whose role it was to monitor what was happening in each department.

Representatives-on-mission: they would help to restore public order in areas where violence had broken out, send any suspects to the Revolutionary Tribunal, check on grain trade and to ensure that conscription levies were being properly enforced . They monitored the army and reported daily back to the CPS

Summary execution decree: March 1793 - which allowed the almost immediate execution of captured rebels without need to send them to the Tribunal in Paris. Rebels could be tried and executed within 24 hours of capture under this decree - these trials however were held without a jury and without the possibility of appeal. THIS ACCOUNTED FOR THE MAJORITY OF EXECUTIONS - MORE SO THAN THE TRIBUNAL.

Revolutionary Tribunal: March 1793 - was established in Paris which was a court specifically established to try anyone accused of involvement in the counter-revolution.

Summary execution decree: more important than the revolutionary tribunal because of the increased efficiency of executions

Watch committees: established in every town to monitor activities of locals

Most of these measures only applied in areas of France in open rebellion and thus were not necessarily implemented uniformly across the whole country.

CPS: by September 1793 it contained only 12 men - most powerful of whom was Robespierre - who met in secret, supervised and oversaw activities of both the Convention and the CGS, over both of which they exercised authority. THEY WERE MORE POWERFUL THAN THE CONVENTION AND THE CGS

What was the influence of radical Parisians during the Terror?

economic concessions such as in May 1793 where the CPS introduced a maximum price on grain alone - September 1793 was General Maximum. This contradicted the Girondins who - before they were purged - were laissez-faire. (26th May 1793) CPS issued another decree imposing forced loans on the wealthy to support the government.

Federal revolt (June-December 1793) broke out with disturbances in 60/83 departments of people who wanted more regional independence and a rejection of State authority - most serious in Lyon - but not coordinated across France so the government could suppress these easily: in response to their representation of Girondins being purged June 1793

Why was Terror seen as no longer necessary by the Indulgents and who were they

many crises had improved as federal revolts were crushed, food supplies were moving into towns and cities (appealing the sans-culottes), value of assignant rising with Maximum, pacification of the Vendee rebellion

- the French army were faring better in revolutionary wars in December 1793, Battle of Fleurus in June 1794 was a major victory (securing Belgium for Austria)

Desmoulin's newspaper called for the release of '200k citizens who are called suspects'

Danton (who was a major threat due to support within the Convention) and Desmoulins arrested March 1794 under suspicion of plotting a coup

Impact of the Terror: economic

- set common people against each other - peasants were hated for bringing about the General Maximum (September 1793) as farmers now had too low profit margins and death penalty imposed on food hoarding

- successful as people were fed and assignat increase by 26% in December 1793

- not successful as the enrages were forcing economic demand upon the Convention countering their own laissez-faire attitudes

Impact of the terror: political

Vendee became a depopulated wasteland, it caused provincial repression with 1900 victims guillotined / cannoned after the Lyon Rebellion. Mass executions with ½ million suspects arrested and died in prison, 53% of 16,600 executions in Vendee.

Unsuccessful as 59% of those killed were peasants and urban workers. Tension where federal revolt caused by feelings of Parisian dominance. Long-term resentment in the countryside of the government. Violence, e.g. Vendee. Successful as gov. Had managed to crush revolts by the end of 1793 - 'pacification of the Rebellion

Impact of the terror: religious

caused deep resentment in the villages especially as this aspect of the Terror affected them most, it took revolutionary religious ideas to a new extreme - causing further divide from villages e.g. renaming the Notre Dame to Tower of Reasons and changing the year system

unsuccessful because it was not government policy but instead driven by the sans-culottes and caused divide between Paris and the villages

Who were the herbertistes - and why were they less of a threat than the indulgents

- wanted the terror to go further

- less of a threat than the Indulgents as less support within the Convention

What led to half of the executions during the Terror - and how did lead to the Coup of Thermidor

The law of prairial (June 1794) - clear evidence that the Terror had gone too far

What led to the ascendancy of Robespierre?

- Led the overthrow of the Girondins and was a leading member of the CPS, supporting extreme measures against perceived opponents

- His power enabled him to implement controversial changes such as the Cult of the Supreme

- Supported the purity of the ideals of the revolution support among the sans-culottes

Reasons for Robespierre's downfall: loss of support of the sans-culottes

Execution of the Herbertistes - sans-culottes strongly supported them and CPS exploited this opportunity to suppress some of the power of the mob

All popular clubs closed - Commune purged and filled with supporters of Robespierre and all representatives-on-mission recalled to Paris

Choosing to raise Maximum on prices March 1794 and a Maximum on wages in July infuriated them. It led to a fall in wages by as much as 50%

LINK: lack of sans-culottes support allowed the government to oppose Robespierre as he less of a threat

Reasons for Robespierre's downfall: catholic opposition

Created 'cult of supreme being' in June 1794 - unpopular with Christians and atheists alike

Especially prevalent after the festival of Supreme being in Paris 8th June 1794 - seen even more as a dictator - 'the bastard isn't satisfied with being the boss, he's got to be God as well' -

LINK: doing this to appease the sans-culottes further emphasises the importance of sans-culotte support

Reasons for Robespierre's downfall: government opposition

- radicals hated the recalling of representatives-on-mission

- moderates resented purging of the girondins and the law of prairial

- fear that Robespierre may denounce other members of government as conspirators as he did to Danton so they combined against him, accusing him of dictatorship

- purged key allies Danton and Desmoulins - executed April 1794

- Law of 22 Prairial (June 1794) removed the right to a defense in trials and vastly increased executions — this terrified even his own supporters in the Convention.

Why was the Thermidorian regime so weak? - lack of legitmacy

They were only united on wanting to seek revenge against Robespierre and a desire to maintain the Republic as they had been involved in a regicide

They were seen as the people who simply removed Robespierre, not as leaders with a clear vision for France.

Sans-culottes distrusted them (seen as too moderate), while royalists and conservatives thought they were still too radical.

What changed from Robespierre's regime and the Thermidorian regime

Ensuring that members of CPS and CGS changed frequently to prevent an oligarchy

Jacobin club officially closed - leading members purged from National Guard

Abolition of the Paris Commune and making sure that meetings happened during the day when the sans-culottes had to work reduced the power of the sans-culottes

In September 1794 the Convention no longer paid salaries for members of the Church marked total separation of Church and State for the very first time - declaring itself completely neutral on all matters of faith

What had the Thermidorian regime changed to become the same as pre-Terror?

Abolition of the Revolutionary Tribunal

Law of Prairial repealed

Power in local government was restored to moderates

Ended state recognition of the Cult of Supreme Being

What actually was the Thermidorian reaction?

Many of the prisoners released held deep resentment to remaining Jacobins deeming them 'Terrorists'

Violence carried out as an almost 'counter-Terror movement'

Brought back laissez-faire attitudes through abolishing the Maximum in December 1794

Further fall in value of assignat to 4% of value in May 1795 compared to 1790 value, compared with 34% before maximum abolished in autumn 1794

Massive inflation

Situation made worse by a poor harvest in 1794 and unprecedented severe winter of 1794-95

These all contributed to suicides and death from malnutrition when scarcity turned into famine

Opposition to the Thermidorians: Germinal Uprising

April 1795

10,000 unarmed people stormed Convention to the main hall demanding bread, 1793 constitution and the release of some CPS from prison

When NG appeared the crowd withdrew without resisting

To reassert authority the Convention deports the imprisoned CPS to Guyana

Opposition to the Thermidorians: Prairial Uprising

20 TH MAY 1795

Large crowd still demanding bread - deputy killed and crowd increasingly hostile to government as failed to solve issue

Deputy's head placed on spike and sent to the Convention

Although forces loyal to the crowd gathered to confront the crowd the following day no one was actually prepared to fire so crisis only resolved when the Convention agreed to set up a food commission

Convention then used further repression - 70 involved executed and 6000 arrested (LAST TIME SANS CULOTTES HAVE POWER SHOWN AS NEXT YEAR SIMILAR ECONOMIC ISSUES BUT NO VIOLENT UPRISING)

First time the regular army used against people in 1789 - shows the decisive intervention and new dependence on the military

Opposition to the Thermidorians: Verona declaration and Vendemaire uprising

- October 1795 Vendemarire uprising included some royalists supporters of Louis XVIII but majority workers angry about continued food shortages and unpopular ideas circulating about the law of ⅔ (the 3 new councils would be made up of old members of the Convention as they were scared of a royalist resurgence and wanted to thus secure the Republic)

25000 crowd marched on Convention to seize power but were defeated by 7800 gov troops who had cannons and Napoleon - suppressed rising quickly with 300 killed - 'whiff of grapehsot'

IMPORTANT: LAST TIME ELECTED ASSEMBLY WAS INTIMIDATED BY A PARISIAN MOB UNTIL 1830

Opposition to the Thermidorians: the white terror

In Paris gangs attacked former Jacobins, militants and sans-culottes

Violence was worse in provinces - in the south in 1795 there were 2000 massacres and street murders and in the West guerilla warfare flared up again in Vendee

Little political ideology just revenge

Whilst in some areas of France it was dealt more harshly - with troops called from the army to suppress the unrest but little effort was used to contain it in some areas so the violence continued in these areas going into 1795/96

What are strengths of the Directory?

Annual elections meant there were less chance of another oligrachy

Tiered voting system further reduced sans-culottes power as they had restricted voting rights

Longest surviving gov (1795-99) but this was largely due to apathy of the public towards the revolution

Reformed the tax system to improve the economic system in the short-run

What are weaknesses of the Directory?: political instability and structural problems

Yearly elections led to constant political turnover, creating instability and short-termism.

There was no mechanism to resolve disputes between the Council of 500 and the Council of Ancients, which often resulted in deadlock.

By summer 1799, there were open divisions among Directors, showing a collapse in executive unity.

The Coup of Fructidor (1797) saw the Directory use the army to annul election results due to fears of a royalist resurgence.

The Coup of Floreal (1798) demonstrated the rising threat of neo-Jacobins — the Directory responded by purging the legislature, again undermining democracy.

The Directory appeared weak and reactionary, lurching between extremes and dependent on force to maintain power.

What are weaknesses of the directory: authoritarian drift

Though the Directory was born to end the Terror, it ironically grew more authoritarian, mimicking many of the same tactics:

Increasing censorship

Arbitrary arrests of political opponents

The Law of Hostages (1799):

Targeted areas seen as resisting government authority.

Allowed for the arrest of wealthy citizens' family members if they failed to provide forced loans. - LINK TO FINANCIAL CRISIS

Reinforced collective punishment — eerily similar to Terror-era repression.

What are weaknesses of the directory: military and economic crisis

- Jordan’s Law (1798) reintroduced conscription, which provoked major rural unrest, especially in areas already disillusioned with Parisian authority.

- France’s wars (especially 1798–99) began to turn against it:

The military suffered defeats - 2nd Coalition in 1799 when Russia and Austria took key Italian territories

- This damaged the regime’s reputation and morale at home.

Unlike during earlier revolutionary wars, the Republic could no longer rely on foreign plunder to finance itself.

- After the assignat became virtually worthless by 1796 then the government then introduced a new currency, the mandat territorial, which also collapsed within a year, trading at 5% of its face value by the end of 1796.

Why did Louis get overthrown: growth in republicanism

Jacobins stormed the Tuileries in June, Cordeliers were involved in the Champs de Mars petition of 50,000 and the

Champs de Mars massacre - although Danton and others went into hiding made the Assembly believe that Republicanism had ended it showed that a republic was necessary for others LINK reignited by war

Louis was overthrown in the storming of Tuileries 10th August 1792 by Jacobins/ armed revolutionaries who wanted to dispose the king and abolish the monarchy