media and framing effects

Priming

When media emphasis on certain issues increases their importance in voters’ evaluations of candidates or policies.
Example: Continuous coverage of inflation makes voters judge politicians mainly by economic performance.
Connection: Affects what people think is important; works alongside framing (how issues are interpreted).

Framing

The way an issue is presented shapes how people interpret it and what considerations come to mind.
Example: Describing welfare as “aid to the poor” vs. “government handouts” changes support levels.
Connection: Focuses on how people think about issues; complements priming (what they think about).

Agenda-Setting

Media determine which issues receive public and political attention by deciding what to cover.
Example: Intense news focus on immigration elevates it to a top national concern.
Connection: The first step before priming and framing; directs attention to issues that later shape evaluations.

Accessibility Model of Media Effects

The more frequently an idea or issue is covered, the easier it becomes to retrieve from memory when making judgments.
Example: Frequent crime reports make citizens perceive crime as more common and pressing.
Connection: Provides the cognitive mechanism behind priming; connects to hot cognition and affective processing.

Hostile Media Effect

Partisans perceive neutral news coverage as biased against their own side.
Example: Democrats and Republicans both viewing the same debate coverage as favoring the opponent.
Connection: Illustrates motivated reasoning and perceptual screening from Party Identification.

Types of Media Bias

Bias can occur through story selection, framing, or tone (e.g., ideological, commercial, or negativity bias).
Example: News outlets emphasizing scandals over policy for higher engagement.
Connection: Shapes public opinion indirectly by altering salience and interpretation; links to agenda-setting.

Negativity Bias in Media

Negative stories attract more attention and are remembered better than positive ones.
Example: Coverage of government failures gains more traction than reports of success.
Connection: Tied to evolutionary attention to threat; reinforces cynicism and distrust toward politics.

Merolla et al. (2013) Study

Found that exposure to terrorism-related media primes threat perceptions and increases support for conservative candidates.
Example: Viewers shown terror imagery favored security-focused politicians.
Connection: Demonstrates priming through threat cues; links fear appeals to media framing.

Soft News and Political Knowledge

Entertainment-focused news can increase awareness of major issues among disengaged audiences.
Example: Learning about politics from late-night comedy segments.
Connection: Shows that non-traditional media can inform through peripheral processing (ELM).

Selective Exposure

Individuals choose media sources that confirm their pre-existing beliefs.
Example: Conservatives preferring Fox News, liberals preferring MSNBC.
Connection: Reinforces partisan polarization; connected to motivated reasoning and Party ID.

Media and Emotions

News stories can evoke fear, anger, or enthusiasm, influencing risk perception and engagement.
Example: Fearful coverage of disasters increases vigilance and demand for action.
Connection: Extends Affective Intelligence Theory into media effects; emotion shapes information processing.

Echo Chambers

Environments (often on social media) where users encounter only like-minded opinions.
Example: Twitter or Reddit communities reinforcing partisan narratives.
Connection: Amplifies selective exposure and polarization; limits deliberative reasoning.

Fake News and Misinformation

Deliberate or accidental spread of false information that shapes political attitudes.
Example: Viral posts claiming election fraud without evidence.
Connection: Relies on peripheral processing and motivated reasoning; challenges informed democratic decision-making.