Unit 4 - Earth Systems and Resources

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering essential vocabulary from Earth science, focusing on geology, atmospheric processes, and water systems.

Asthenosphere

The soft, flowing layer of the upper part of the mantle upon which the rigid outer shell moves.

Collision zone

The area where two continental sections of the rigid outer layer smash together, often forming mountains.

Convergent boundary

A location where two sections of the outer shell are pushing toward one another.

Core

The planet's innermost layer made primarily of iron and nickel.

Divergent boundary

A location where two sections of the outer shell are moving away from each other.

Earthquake

A sudden, violent shaking of the ground caused by the release of energy in the crust.

Fault

A fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock that allows them to move relative to each other.

Hot spot

An area of high temperature within the mantle that melts rock, forming volcanoes far from boundary lines.

Island arc

A chain of volcanic islands created when oceanic outer layers meet.

Lithosphere

The rigid outer layer of the planet, consisting of the crust and upper solid mantle.

Magma

Molten rock found beneath the Earth's surface.

Mantle

The thick layer of hot, dense rock between the crust and the core.

Plate tectonics

The theory describing the large-scale movement of the planet's outermost shell.

Seafloor spreading

The formation of new crust at underwater ridges as two sections move apart.

Subduction

The process where one section of the rigid outer layer sinks beneath another at a meeting line.

Transform boundary

A location where two sections of the outer shell slide past each other horizontally.

Tsunami

A series of enormous ocean waves caused by a large-scale disturbance, often an underwater ground-shaking event.

Volcano

A vent in the crust through which molten rock, ash, and gases escape.

A horizon (Topsoil)

The dark, fertile upper layer of the loose top layer, rich in organic matter and minerals.

Acid precipitation (Acid rain)

Moisture that falls from the sky with a high level of hydrogen ions, making it harmful to ecosystems.

B horizon

The subsurface layer where minerals and clay leached from above accumulate.

Base saturation

The percentage of positive ion retention sites occupied by beneficial ions like calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium.

C horizon

The lowest layer of the loose top layer, consisting of partially broken-down bedrock.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

A measure of the total quantity of positive ions that a loose top layer can retain.

Chemical weathering

The breakdown of surface material that involves a change in its chemical composition.

E horizon

A light-colored layer beneath the uppermost dark layer from which minerals and clay have been leached out.

Erosion

The transport of surface materials (like soil and rock) by wind, water, or ice.

Horizon

A distinct layer within the loose top layer of the Earth's surface.

Humus

The dark, fully decomposed organic matter component of the loose top layer.

Igneous rock

Solidified material formed from cooled molten rock.

Metamorphic rock

Transformed material created when existing material is changed by intense heat and pressure.

O horizon

The uppermost layer, composed primarily of organic material.

Parent material

The underlying mineral and organic matter from which the loose top layer develops.

Permeability

The rate at which liquids can flow through a material.

Physical weathering

The mechanical breakdown of surface material into smaller pieces without changing its chemical composition.

Porosity

The measure of the amount of empty space within a material.

Rock cycle

The continuous process by which Earth material changes from one form to another.

Sedimentary rock

Layered material formed from compressed and cemented fragments of other materials or organic matter.

Water holding capacity

The ability of a material to retain moisture.

Adiabatic cooling

The decrease in temperature of a mass of air as it rises and expands.

Adiabatic heating

The increase in temperature of a mass of air as it sinks and is compressed.

Albedo

The reflectivity of a surface, measured as the ratio of reflected energy to incident energy.

Atmospheric convection current

The large-scale movement of air driven by unequal solar heating.

Coriolis effect

The apparent deflection of moving objects (like air and water) due to the planet's rotation.

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

A periodic, complex fluctuation in global weather caused by changes in Pacific ocean currents and temperatures.

Exosphere

The outermost layer of air, gradually merging with space.

Ferrel cell

A middle-latitude circulation pattern of air located between the equatorial and polar circulation loops.

Hadley cell

A giant circulation pattern of air that moves from the equator to 30 degrees latitude and back.

Insolation

The total amount of solar energy received on an area of the Earth's surface.

Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

A belt of low pressure near the equator where prevailing winds meet and cause heavy rainfall.

La Niña

A cooling phase of the equatorial Pacific ocean, often associated with altered global weather patterns.

Latent heat release

The energy given off when water vapor condenses into liquid water.

Mesosphere

The layer of air above the second layer, where most meteors burn up.

Ozone

A protective gas (O₃) in the upper atmosphere that absorbs ultraviolet radiation.

Polar cell

A giant circulation pattern of air that moves from the poles to 60 degrees latitude and back.

Rain shadow

A dry area on the downwind side of a mountainous region.

Saturation point

The maximum amount of water vapor that a volume of air can hold at a given temperature.

Stratosphere

The second layer of air above the surface, containing the protective layer.

Thermosphere

The hottest, second-highest layer of air, containing the ionosphere.

Troposphere

The lowest layer of air, where nearly all weather occurs.

Aqueducts

Artificial channels used to transport water from a distant source, typically for human consumption.

Carbon sequestration

The process of capturing and long-term storage of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Condensation

The change of a gas or vapor to a liquid, which forms clouds or dew.

Evaporation

The change of a liquid to a gas or vapor (e.g., from the ocean surface to the atmosphere).

Groundwater

Water held beneath the surface in the soil or in pores and crevices of rock.

Gyre

A large system of circulating ocean currents driven by prevailing winds and planetary spin effects.

Infiltration

The process of water soaking into the ground from the surface.

Precipitation

Any form of water (rain, snow, sleet, or hail) that falls from the sky and reaches the ground.

Runoff

The flow of excess water over the land surface, eventually reaching rivers, lakes, and oceans.

Thermohaline circulation

The global density-driven movement of deep ocean water, depending on temperature and saltiness.

Transpiration

The process where plants release water vapor into the air through their leaves.

Upwelling

The rise of cold, nutrient-rich water from the deep ocean to the surface.

Watershed

The entire area of land from which all the surface runoff drains into a single body of water.