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Code
a neutral term that can be used to refer to any kind of system that people employ for communication (eg. Language, dialect and variety).
Multilingualism
use of different language varieties in the same community (societal multilingualism) or situation (individual multilingualism)
What is a balanced multilingual?
Fluency in multiple languages. They are rare.
What is an indicator of language competence?
Holding a conversation in a language.
What is the paradox of multilingualism?
When multilingualism is and sometimes isn’t valued.
Elite multilingualism:
socially advantageous, involving prestigious languages that are learnt outside the home.
Plebeian/immigrant multilingualism:
often stigmatised, arises due to migration.
Ideology of normative monolingualism:
monolingualism as the norm
Monoglossic ideology:
the belief that languages should be kept separate in their use. Combining elements from different languages is not considered acceptable.
Pluralist ideology/pluralism
The belief that all ways (or multiple ways) of speaking and being are valued.
Multilingualism is the result of language contact. What are some examples?
Urbanisation/migration
Trade, commerce, or other economic motivations
Growing up in a different area from family
Mixed relationships/marriages
Seasonal work
Education (including religious education)
Radio, television, internet
War and conquests
Language maintenance:
linguistic groups maintain their languages with varying derees of bi-/multilingualism
Language shift
a language is lost as a community shifts to a different language, usually with greater social dominance.
ethnolinguistic vitality
the likelihood that a given language will be transmitted inter-generationally from parents to children.
What determines the ethnolinguistic vitality?
Status of a language (economic, social, historical)
territorial distribution
demographic strength (absolute numbers, birthrates, migrations)
Institutional supports: formally in media, education and government and less formally in workplace, religious gatherings and social activities.
What happens to group with low ELV?
will assimilate linguistically or cease to exist as distinctive groups9
What are languages with low ELV associated with?
Language shift and language death.
Linguistic landscapes
the visibility and salience of langugae on public and commercial signs in a given territory.
Multilingual discourse
the use of linguistic elements from more than one variety in a conversation or text
Code switching
incorporating material from another language into the one being spoken or alternating between two or more languages during the same communicative event.
What is a natural consequence of language contact?
code-switching
Intersentential code-switching
one sentence in one language and another sentence in another language.
Intrasentential code-switching
use of more than one language within the same sentence.
Is code switching seen negatively or positively?
Negatively indicating incompetence.
Code-switching motivations:
Assert power/authority
declare solidarity/indicate neutrality
get attention
indicate one’s level of education
express multiple aspects of linguistic identity
What factors affect the language we choose?
topic, speakers, setting, context, etc.
Domains of language choice
can be thought of as particular settings and the activities associated with those settings. Example, home, market, classroom, etc.
Disglossia
The notion of domain, and how it affects language use, is important in understanding a specific kind of societal bilingualism.
High variety disglossia
used in public life (edication, government, legal system), and taught in school.
Low variety disglossia
used in private/informal social domains and is learnt at home or informal settings.
Communication accommodation theory (CAT) main focus
The analysis of the ways that speakers change the way they speak depending on the person they are talking to (family member, friend, stranger, kid). “Change the way you speak based on who you are interacting with”.
Accommodation
modifying one’s speech to be more similar to or different from the speech of the addressee and hearer.
Convergence
speakers adopt similar ways of speaking to reduce dissimilarities
Divergence
speakers adopt different ways of speaking to emphasize dissimilarities.
Audience design theory
the way speakers vary the way they speak in response to an audience. not only those dierectly adressed but also participants who are not directly addressed. it is an extension of the CAT.
Markedness model
analysing use of different codes in code-switching according to their markedness. the language itself is not the problem, but its meaning and understanding is.
Unmarked choice:
the expected code in a specific context
Marked choice:
the code that would not nrmally be expected.
Domains of language use:
Domains can be thought of as particular settings and the activities associated with those settings
lingua franca
a language of wider communication. a common language used in situations where speakers of different languages interact. used in multilingual situations.
substrate
Languages of the subordinated groups. Often contibutes to the phonology and grammar of the pidgin or creole.
lexifier
language that provides the greater portion of the vocabulary. often the superstrate
pidgin
vieriety which develops in language contact situations with limited exposure to target language. they are simplified languages that cannot be used in all contexts and that are not the native language of a society. Non-native systems. Not a full language.
creole
a language that develops in contact situations that typically involve more than two languages and is usually assumed to be elaborated and nativised. It is the native and primary language. They are elaborate native systems.
acrolect
a creole continuum → the variety closest to the standard prestige language. intelligible to speakers of the superstrate.
mesolect
a creole continuum → intermediate variety/varieties between the two poles.
mixed language
new language, created by bilinguals, normally in situations of community bilingualism, with major components drawn from each of the languages in a contact situation. there is not a communicative need for a new language. NOT the same as code-switching.
creole continuum
a range of varieties that resemble the superstrate language to different degrees.
superstrate
The language of the socially dominant group. It provides the vocabulary.
What are some examples of lingua francas?
French, Latin, English, Hindi, Mandarin and Arabic
How are pidgins often developed?
Through trade, war, colonisation or settlement, or labout migration.
What are some examples of pidgins?
Russenorsk → language developed to enable communication between Russian and Norwegian traders.
Chinook jargos → used by traders in the Pacific Northwest.
In which context was a creole often developed?
In the context of slavery and Trans-Atlantic slave trade.
What are some examples of creoles?
Haitian Creole, Bislama, Papiamento.
When does a creole develop?
When speakers need to communicate in an expanded range of situations. When there is an absence of pre-existing models/norms of correctness and institutional pressure for standardisation.
Interlanguage:
The developing grammar of a second language learner. Spoken by individuals.
P/C languages
conventionalised system of communication. Involves various individuals speaking a second language. They are target langauges.
Are creoles varieties of their lexifier langagues?
No, they have their own grammar. They are separate langauges with no/limited mutual intelligibility with the lexifier language.
basilect:
a creole continuum → the variety which is most removed or distinct from the prestigious superstrate. unintelligible to speakers of the superstrate language.
What are some structural features of creoles?
phonological simplification
no inflection in nouns, pronouns, verbs and adjectives
tense marking through periphrastic constructions.
Gradualist model of creole formation:
grammatical elaboration can develop without nativisation
depends on the uses the pidgin is put to.
Substratist view of creole formation:
Creole similarities due to the languages that participated in their formation.
Examples of mixed languages:
Michif in Canada, Ma’á/Mbigu in Tanzania, Anglo-Romani in England, Media Lengua in Ecuador.
What is the similarity betweeen creoles and mixed languages?
Both are languages formed in contact situations.
P/C vs mixed language speakers:
a) Shared language:
b) Contributing languages:
c) Language structure:
a) Abstent for P/C, present for mixed.
b) Accessible to mixed, not necessarily for P/C.
c) Language sources recognisable for mixed, not necessarily for P/C.
Pidgins vs creoles:
Pidgins: reduced non-native linguistic systems
Creole: full-fledge native languages.