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What are the main layers of the Earth?

The crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.

What is the theory of plate tectonics?

It describes the large-scale movement of the Earth's lithosphere, which includes the crust and upper mantle.

What are the three types of plate boundaries?

Convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries.

What occurs at a convergent boundary?

Plates move toward each other, often creating trenches and volcanoes.

What happens at a divergent boundary?

Plates move away from each other, leading to the formation of rift zones and mid-ocean ridges.

What is a transform boundary?

A boundary where plates slide past each other without creating or destroying lithosphere.

What is the composition of oceanic crust?

Primarily basaltic rocks, making it denser than continental crust.

What is the composition of continental crust?

Primarily granitic rocks, making it less dense than oceanic crust.

What is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge?

A divergent plate boundary that forms a mid-ocean ridge due to oceanic crust divergence.

What is the East Africa Rift Valley?

A continental-continental divergent boundary in an early stage of development.

What is subduction?

The process where one tectonic plate moves under another, often forming trenches.

What is the Mariana Trench?

A trench formed by oceanic-continental convergence where oceanic crust subducts under continental crust.

What geological feature is created by continent-continent convergence?

Mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas.

What are active continental margins?

Margins where tectonic activity occurs, coinciding with plate boundaries.

What are passive continental margins?

Margins that are tectonically inactive and separated from oceanic ridges by oceanic crust.

What is a fringing reef?

A coral reef that grows close to the shore of a volcanic island.

What is a barrier reef?

A reef that forms as a volcanic island erodes, leaving a barrier of coral.

What is an atoll reef?

A reef that remains after the volcanic island has completely submerged, forming a lagoon.

What is a patch reef?

Reefs that do not fit into Darwin's classification, often clumps of corals separated by sand.

What is the significance of the San Andreas Fault?

It is a major transform boundary in California where earthquakes frequently occur.

What happens during ocean-ocean convergence?

Both oceanic plates subduct, forming trenches and possibly volcanic island arcs.

What geological processes are associated with divergent plate boundaries?

Formation of rift zones, mid-ocean ridges, and shallow earthquakes.

What is the role of convection currents in plate tectonics?

They drive the movement of tectonic plates by lifting and pulling the lithosphere.

What is the density of oceanic crust compared to continental crust?

Oceanic crust is denser (2.9 g/cm³) than continental crust (2.7 g/cm³).

What occurs during the rifting process?

Continental plates pull apart, leading to the formation of rift valleys and lakes.

What is the relationship between earthquakes and plate boundaries?

Earthquakes are common at all types of plate boundaries due to the movement of tectonic plates.

What is the process that leads to the formation of a new ocean basin?

Continued rifting and divergence of continental plates can create a new ocean basin.

What event in January 1992 illustrated the power of ocean currents?

A container ship lost 29,000 plastic bathtub toys at sea.

What drives surface ocean currents?

Winds generated by the uneven heating of the Earth by the sun.

What is the California Current?

A cold current along the U.S. west coast.

How does the Gulf Stream affect winter temperatures in northern Europe?

It raises them by about 10°C compared to other regions at the same latitude.

What is the Great Ocean Conveyor?

A deeper global circulation that redistributes water around the world, driven by temperature and salinity differences.

What happens to seawater in the North Atlantic as ice forms?

It cools, becomes saltier and denser, and sinks to the ocean floor.

How long may it take for water sinking in the North Atlantic to rise back to the surface?

1,000-1,200 years.

What is the Coriolis effect?

The deflection of moving air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere due to Earth's rotation.

Who first described the Coriolis effect?

French mathematician Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis.

What is the Ekman spiral?

A pattern of water movement where each deeper layer moves more slowly and is deflected by the Coriolis effect.

What is Ekman transport?

The net movement of water about 90° to the right of the wind in the Northern Hemisphere and 90° to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

What is coastal upwelling?

The process where deep, cold, nutrient-rich water rises to replace displaced surface water due to Ekman transport moving surface waters away from shore.

What occurs during downwelling?

Surface waters move toward each other, forcing water down and transporting oxygen into deeper layers.

What is surface divergence?

When surface waters move away from each other, creating a gap that must be filled by rising water from below.

What is western intensification?

The phenomenon where ocean currents along the western boundaries of ocean basins become stronger, narrower, and faster than those along eastern boundaries.

What is the typical speed of western boundary currents?

Fast, up to 3-5 mph.

How do eastern boundary currents differ from western boundary currents?

Eastern currents are typically slower, broader, colder, and shallower.

What is an eddy?

A circular or swirling current of water formed when a larger ocean current separates a section of water from its main flow.

How do eddies contribute to marine ecosystems?

They bring cold, nutrient-rich water from the deep ocean to the surface, promoting phytoplankton growth.

What is the impact of downwelling on nutrient availability?

It reduces nutrient availability at the surface, making these regions less productive biologically.

What role do trade winds play in coastal upwelling?

They drive surface water offshore, allowing nutrient-rich water to rise from below.

What is the relationship between surface convergence and biological productivity?

Surface convergence generally reduces biological productivity due to downwelling and lower nutrient availability.

What is the typical temperature of western boundary currents?

Warm, carrying tropical water poleward.

What is the biological productivity of eastern boundary currents?

High, due to cold, nutrient-rich waters.

What happens to the water during surface convergence?

Water accumulates and is pushed downward, resulting in downwelling.

What are some famous examples of upwelling zones?

The California Current and the Peru Current.

What is the effect of the Coriolis effect on ocean currents?

It creates curved wind and current patterns, complicating the movement of air and water.

What does thermohaline circulation refer to?

The part of large-scale ocean circulation driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes.

What does the term 'thermohaline' derive from?

'Thermo-' refers to temperature and '-haline' refers to salt content.

What is another name for thermohaline circulation?

Ocean conveyor belt or global conveyor belt.

What causes gyres in oceanography?

The Coriolis Effect, planetary vorticity, and horizontal and vertical friction.

Name one of the five major gyres.

Examples include the North Atlantic Gyre or the South Pacific Gyre.

What are coastal currents?

Currents that flow along or around the coastline, affected by wind, waves, and land.

What generates longshore currents?

Waves hitting the coastline at an angle, causing energy to fuel the current.

How does the angle of wave approach affect longshore currents?

A lower (more acute) angle and higher wave velocity increase the strength of the longshore current.

What are rip currents?

Strong channels of water that flow away from the shore, often mistaken for rip tides.

What is upwelling?

The process where water and nutrients from the ocean bottom rise to the surface.

Why is upwelling important?

It enhances fishing and agricultural productivity by bringing nutrients to the surface.

What is a wave?

A repeating and periodic disturbance that travels through a medium, such as water.

What is the wave crest?

The highest part of a wave.

Define wave trough.

The lowest part of a wave.

What is wave height?

The vertical distance between the wave crest and wave trough.

What does wavelength measure?

The distance from one point on a wave to the same point on the next wave.

What is wave amplitude?

Half the distance from the crest to the trough.

What is wave frequency?

The number of waves passing a fixed point in a specified period of time.

What is the formula for wave speed?

Wave speed (c) is calculated as wavelength (λ) divided by wave period (T): c = λ/T.

What is wave steepness?

The ratio of wave height to wavelength; steepness exceeding 1:7 causes waves to break.

What are capillary waves?

Very small waves with wavelengths less than 1.7 cm, created by wind friction on water.

What are standing waves?

Waves that oscillate in a fixed position without moving forward, created by reflection.

What is swell in oceanography?

Smooth undulation of the ocean surface formed as waves move away from their storm center.

What causes tides?

The daily ebb and flow of water caused by the gravitational pull of the sun and moon.

Why does the moon have a stronger effect on tides than the sun?

The moon is much closer to Earth than the sun, despite the sun's larger volume.

What are spring tides?

Spring tides are the strongest tides that occur when the sun and moon's gravitational pulls are combined.

What are neap tides?

Neap tides are weaker tides that occur when the sun and moon are at right angles to each other.

What is El Niño?

El Niño is an oceanographic phenomenon characterized by sustained sea surface temperature anomalies greater than 0.5 °C in the central tropical Pacific Ocean.

What happens to trade winds during El Niño?

Trade winds weaken or reverse, causing warm water from Southeast Asia to move to the western Pacific.

What are the first signs of an El Niño event?

1. Rise in air pressure over the Indian Ocean, Indonesia, and Australia. 2. Fall in air pressure over Tahiti. 3. Weakened trade winds. 4. Warm air rises near Peru, causing rain. 5. Warm water spreads to the east Pacific.

What is La Niña?

La Niña is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific, often following El Niño.

How does La Niña affect Atlantic tropical cyclone activity?

La Niña generally enhances Atlantic tropical cyclone activity.

What are lithogenous sediments?

Lithogenous sediments are derived from land-based origins, commonly found near continental margins.

What are biogenous sediments?

Biogenous sediments are derived from biological processes, typically found in ocean basins.

What are hydrogenous sediments?

Hydrogenous sediments are precipitated from ocean water and are less common than lithogenous and biogenous sediments.

What are cosmogenous sediments?

Cosmogenous sediments are derived from space, such as meteorites, and are the rarest type of ocean sediment.

What is the function of the Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP)?

The ADCP measures the speed and direction of ocean currents using the principle of Doppler shift.

What are the Bushmaster and Chimneymaster used for?

They are large collection nets used to gather communities of tube worms and hydrothermal vent fauna.

What do clod cards help scientists understand?

Clod cards help understand patterns of water motion over benthic organisms.

What is the purpose of drifters in oceanography?

Drifters are used to study global ocean currents and provide real-time information about ocean circulation patterns.

What are environmental satellites used for?

Environmental satellites detect and observe characteristics of the Earth's atmosphere, lands, and oceans.

What do semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) monitor?

SPMDs monitor trace levels of organic contaminants in aquatic environments.

What is SONAR used for?

SONAR is used to find and identify objects in water and to determine water depth.

What are trawls used for in marine research?

Trawls are nets towed behind boats to collect quantitative data on marine organisms.

What is the economic impact of prolonged El Niño conditions?

Prolonged El Niño can lead to extensive ocean warming, negatively affecting local fishing economies.

What is the Walker circulation cell?

The Walker circulation cell is a system of air circulation in the Pacific that influences weather patterns and ocean conditions.