Unit 2 Psychology Study Guide

cognition

cognition

thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory

Artificial intelligence

field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people

What does stimuli cause? Input?

responses; outputs

Concepts? Example?

category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences; prototypical models

prototypical models

comparing an item to the most typical items

Thinking

manipulating info mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically and creatively

Fixation? When does it occur?

fail to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective; in problem solving

Functional Fixedness

can perceive an object being used for something other than what it is designed for

problem solving

mental process of finding appropriate ways to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available 

Problem solving steps

1.) find and frame problems 2.) use problem solving strategies 3.) evaluate solutions 4.) rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time

Name the 3 problem solving strategies (that was mentioned in class)

trial and error, algorithms, heuristics

trial and error

solutions attempted until one is found

Algorithms? How?

test all possible solutions in order to guarantee a solution to a problem; Formula that provides step-by-step instructions to achieve desired outcome

Heuristics

strategies suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer (biases)

inductive reasoning

specific to general

deductive reasoning

general to specific

loss aversion

preference to avoid loss rather than acquire gains

confirmation bias

search and use information that supports and does not refute ones beliefs 

hindsight bias

tendency to report falsely, after the fact fact, that an event was predictable (“I could’ve told you that”)

availability heuristic

prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events

representativeness/bias? What does it lead to?

we classify objects based on how similar it is to the typical member of the category; This leads to stereotyping someone or something without a valid bias for your judgment

base rate neglect

tendency to ignore statistical information in favor of very specific but vivid information

convergent thinking

there is one correct solution but many ways to get there

Divergent thinking

there is a problem and we are trying to figure out the different options for DIFFERENT solutions

Intelligence

all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, solve problems, and learn from experience

IQ

 a person's mental age divided by their chronological age multiplied by 100 (IQ=MA/CA x 100)

What doe rigorous vetting make sure IQ tests have?

reliability, validity, standardization

reliability

extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance

validity

extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

standardizing

method of testing in which administration, scoring, and interpretation of results are consistent (norming)

culture fair tests

Intelligence is determined by genetics and environment

flynn effect

over time people are getting more and more intelligent

Spearman

came up with the spearman g. Intelligence is a general, all purpose problem solving ability that can be compared between two people

Raymond Cattel?

came up with two components to intelligence (crystallized and fluid intelligence)

crystalized intelligence

acquired knowledge and ability to retrieve it

fluid intelligence

ability to see complex relationships and solve problems

Robert Sternberg

triarchic theory of intelligence. Intelligence comes in 3 forms: analytical, creative, and practical

Howard Gardner

multiple intelligence theory; He had many types of intelligence but one thing in particular he talked about was emotional intelligence (he called intrapersonal intelligence, and naturalistic intelligence)

range of reaction

each person responds to the environment in a unique way based on their genetics

Memory

retention of information and/or experience over time (3 processes)

Encoding

• process by which info gets into storage

storage

how info is retained and represented in memory

retrieval

process that occurs when information comes out of storage

What does encoding depend on

our attentional processes

selective attention

trying to concentrate on one thing at a time

divided attention

trying to concentrate on more than one thing at one time

sustained attention

• how long can we maintain our attention on a particular topic

How do we get deeper processing for better memory?

elaboration and imagery

elaboration

• make meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory

imagery

mental pictures associated with what is to be remembered

Sensory memory (storage)

• memory system that involved holding information from the world in its original sensory form

What are 2 types of sensory memory

echoic and iconic memory

echoic memory? lasts?

memory for sounds; several seconds

Iconic memory? Lasts?

visual representation of visual representation that lingers; ¼ second - ex. sparklers

short term memory? Constraints?

limited-capacity memory system; only retained for 30 sec, and 7+-2 are the number of items that can be retained

What are 2 strategies that can lead to greater retention

chunking and rehearsal

chunking

taking information to form meaningful groups

Rehearsal

repeating the information given over and over again

working memory

combination of components, including short-term memory and attention, that allow individuals to hold information temporarily as they perform cognitive tasks

long term memory

relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long period of time

two main types of long term memory

explicit and implicit

explicit memory? contains what?

declarative; 2 other types of memory

implicit memory? contains what?

nondeclaritive memory; 2 types of memory within itself

what are the two types of explicit memory

episodic memory and semantic memory

episodic memory

autobiographical

semantic memory

facts of the world; similar to crystalized intelligence

two types of implicit memory

procedural memory and priming

procedural memory

memory for skills

priming

e.g. hints, retracing steps

What are the two effects of the serial position effect

primary effect, and recency effect

primary effect

more likely to remember what happens at the beginning of that information

recency effect

more likely to remember what happens at the end of that information

retrieval cues

these prompt your memory

task

what is the retrieval activity asking of you

recall is a task what is the cue

essay question

recognition

cue is multiple choice questions

encoding specificity

cue is remembering a classmates name

what are the 5 special cases of retrieval

autobiographical memory, flashbulb memory, traumatic memory, repressive memory, and eyewitness testimony

autobiographical memory?

Flashbulb memory?

what are 2 possible reasons for forgetting

encoding failure and retrieval failure

what’re the 5 retrieval failure examples

interference, decay, tip of the tongue phenomenon, prospective memory, and amnesia

what are the 2 types of interference

proactive and retroactive

proactive interference

earlier info interferes with recent info

retroactive interference

later info interferes with earlier info

decay

individual learns something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this trace disintegrated; suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting

the two types of prospective memory

retrospective and prospective

retrospective memory

remembering info from the past

prospective memory

remember info about doing something in the future

what are the 2 types of amnesia

anterograde and retrograde

anterograde amnesia

can’t form new memories

retrograde amnesia

can’t remember old memories

development

the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout the course of life

what does development include

physical, cognitive, and socioemotional processes

what are the 3 prenatal periods

germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods

how long does the germinal period last

weeks 1-2

how long doe the embryonic period last

weeks 3-8

how long does the fetal period last

months 2-9

teratogens

threats to the fetus

pre-term

infant born prior to 37 weeks after pregnancy