case study and content

Hydroponics used in Thanet Earth, Kent

- grow tomatoes/peppers yearly

- overcomes soil problems due to growing plants in water - however due to high cost is only an effective solution to implement in HDEs, not highly accessible

Green revolution

- high yielding crops

- agrochemicals

- hydroponics

key strategy to ensure food security

green revolution = new agricultural technology: new high-yield seeds and fertilisers

High yielding crop varieties =

- IR8 rice strain in the Philippines, resulted in a 6 fold increase in yield, helps overcome food shortages - more crops available, less reliant on imports

- high yielding varieties more vulnerable to pests/new disease, therefore more pesticides required - constant development

- rice is most important food crop globally - more energy to humanity than any other crop

Increased agrochemical use =

- chemical fertilisers have 2x crop yields in tropical areas, use of pesticide aldrin to control locust plagues

- in the Punjab crop spraying has 2x farm yields in 50 years but increased agrochemical infiltration contaminated soils and food - 35000 cancer deaths in 5 years linked to use of pesticides

- can be overcome with proper protective equipment for crop sprayers but not enough education/investment

Gene revolution

- GM crops

gene revolution = using genetic engineering to develop genetically improved strains of crops and livestock animals

GM crops =

- used in USA for soy, maize

DNA taken from one plant and inserted into another to make it more drought/pest/disease resistant - increases yields

- not grown commercially in the UK and their cultivation has been banned in 40 countries due to unknown implications on health and environment

Environmental factors and health

- air quality

- Ella Kissi

Ella Kissi-Debrah

- lived 25m from highly polluted Lewisham road - London

died in Feb 2013 of acute respiratory failure after 3 years of seizures and 27 asthma related hospital visits

- death linked to dangerous high pollution from diesel traffic, spikes in air pollution lined up with her asthma attacks

- Her death shows that even though London is an HDE with knowledge and money to implement schemes to manage air pollution that it is a health impacting factor that cannot be fully overcome - air pollution still breached legal limit - resulting in Ella Kissi's death

Malaria

- distribution and global incidence

- impact of socio/economic/environmental factors on disease prevalence

Malaria = a communicable disease transferred by mosquito vectors that kills 600,000 average annually

- found across 97 countries

- impact in countries varies due to different levels of healthcare, development, education

- hot, tropical climates = higher prevalence - African children make up the majority of all deaths

- higher outbreak rates after rainy season in Africa, large lakes eg. Lake Victoria act as breeding ground for mosquito

Malaria

- impact of socio/economic/environmental factors on disease prevalence

Impact of socio/economic/environmental factors =

- in lower socio-economic groups - lack of access to prevention and treatment methods increases vulnerability predominately

- poor housing quality where sand and earth floors are used retain moisture attracting mosquito breeding, whilst poorly fitted doors/windows encourage vector entry

-contamination rates = higher in urban environments eg. squatter settlements

- higher income families more able to invest in insect repellents, nets etc. to reduce risk of infection, also experience better nutrition - less cerebral malaria rates in well nourished children

- in Malawi homes where the head of household had not completed primary school were less likely to have mosquito nets due to a lack of education on the link between the physical environment and disease

Both Brazil + Demographic Republic of Congo fall in band between tropic of cancer/capricorn where malaria vector can survive and reproduce - same latitude

- variations in impact - out of 100,000 people

0.06 malaria related deaths in Brazil (HDI 0.78)

53.8 in DRC (HDI 0.48)

- contrast in mortality/disease impacts due to socio-economic factors

- Brazil more developed healthcare, treatment, education on prevention

- heath issues like Malaria caused by geographical location can be overcome by sufficient socio-economic investment/development

Malaria

- impact on health/well being

- management and mitigation strategies

Impact on health/well being =

- initially causes fever, chills, aches, weakness but can progress into cerebral malaria, kidney failure, coma, seizures and death

- increases school absences, decreases tourism + foreign investment + crop production

- slows economic growth, prolonging poverty cycles - preventing many countries progression through the DTM

- costs Africa $12 billion each year due to lost productivity

Management and mitigation strategies =

(small scale bottom up strategies)

use of insecticides to control number of carrier mosquitoes - only partially successful as mosquitoes developed resistance

- increased education programmes, Ethiopian projects taught farmers in rural areas to cover water tanks + dry out irrigation channels weekly to interrupt mosquito life cycle + stock water sites with fish to eat larvae

(top down strategies funded by large external agencies/NGOs)

- Roll Back Malaria - WHO global malaria action plan, by 2015 had helped reduce global malaria deaths by 60% through funding preventative measures:

- Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) insecticide on walls of homes to kill mosquito before transmission of malaria

- Insecticide Treated Mosquito Nets (ITNs) - prevents from biting human host

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

- distribution and global incidence

- impact of socio/economic factors on disease prevalence

CHD = noncommunicable disease caused by the build up of fatty deposits in the major heart arteries - most common cardiovascular disease and causes 7.5 million deaths annually

- distribution not significantly correlated to physical environment

- more significant correlation between economy, HDEs have significantly higher rates of CHD due to higher partaking in risk behaviours increasing rates (age of degenerative diseases in the Epidemiological transition model)

Impact of socio/economic/environmental factors =

- poor diet and other negative lifestyle factors are estimated to account for 1/3 of all CHD related deaths in England

- positive correlation between levels of social deprivation and deaths from circulatory diseases (evidenced in the North/South divide in England: higher rates of CHD in North which suffering economic decline post industrial revolution decline, more risk behaviours - smoking, drinking )

3 year lower LE in North - 79 compared to 82

- CHD mortality 60% higher in smokers

- WHO report declared that diets with high saturated fat, sodium and sugar increase CHD risk

CHD

- impact on health/well being

- management and mitigation strategies

Impact on health/wellbeing =

- causes heart attacks/failure which can be fatal

- prevention strategies include, stents, bypasses and use of warfarin an anticoagulant to thin the blood,

- CHD estimated to cost UK healthcare system £8.7 billion

Management and mitigation strategies =

- educating public through promoting benefits for heart health,

- World Heart Day, 29th September - 120 countries took part in 2015 , encourages exercise/ reduced consumption of saturated fats, blood pressure testing - global campaign

- effective but requires government funding and high capital inputs to have a large scale impact

- In LDEs/NEEs lack of research and finding means awareness is lacking on the factors that increase CHD prevalence

- Government policies and legislation eg. smoking bans (first introduced in 2003 in public places to the UK)

- effective in reducing smoke exposure to non-smokers in particular in socio-economically deprived areas

- has a less significant impact on people who were already smokers as they haven't changed habits therefore no impact on risk of CHD.

WHO (international agency)

- Ebola crisis

- Smallpox

World Health Organisation

- provides a central exchange centre for education, global campaigns/information/research on vaccines, cancer research, nutrition, endemics etc.

- coordinates for health within UN governance system

Ebola crisis =

(Liberia/Sierra Leone worst affected)

- WHO accused of failing to react quick enough and with a large enough scale response, resulting in widespread of the disease

- 11,000 dead and 28,000 cases

- had been warned in April by Doctors without borders that the outbreak was out of control - WHO disputed this

- feared to overreact again

- in 2009, claimed swine flu was a global pandemic and caused billions to be wasted on treatments for a not that deadly flu strain

- implemented traditional disease containing methods that didn't work well in countries with porous borders/poor health systems (Liberia/Sierra Leone)

Smallpox=

- example of success

- global eradication of smallpox (1977) largely due to WHOs contributions

- previously had been around for 3000 years over 5 continents

- implemented an intense eradication programme, produced a higher quality freeze dried vaccine

- developed bifurcated needle (to hold and inject vaccine) cost effective and more efficient to increase vaccination rate, - - mass vaccination campaigns

carrying capacity + easter island

Easter Island =

- example of environmental constraints on population growth

- for 600 years Polynesians lived on island with a thriving society but over 16 million trees were removed for slash/burn farming and this rapid resource depletion caused a breakdown in the society as land was over farmed and lack of wood meant boats couldn't be built to fish with anymore - lead to conflicts over scarse resource availability and eventually complete obliteration of society

Contrasting perspectives on the implications of population growth

- Malthus

Malthus =

- population growth occurs faster than growth of food availability, without population controls population will outgrow food supply resulting in Malthusian catastrophes (war, famine, disease) which will create Malthusian checks that will end up reducing populations (negative feedback)

- Neo-Malthusian "limits to growth model" produced in 1972, shows how economic growth cannot continue indefinitely due to limited natural resource availability and the global impacts of resource depletion: decreasing populations/industrial output, less food security etc.

evidence =

-between 1800 and 2015 population increased by 6 billion

- increased frequency of "Malthusian catastrophes" such as famines in Ethiopia + Sudan

Contrasting perspectives on the implications of population growth

- Boserup

Boserup =

alternative more optimistic view

- said that human ingenuity can alter carrying capacity allowing it to extend with a growing population, a higher population density stimulates development of new technology and innovation

- "necessity is the mother of invention"

- population change stimulates change in agriculture: eg. development of IR8 rice strain in Phillipeans to overcome food insecurity due to a growing population

health impacts of global environmental change

ozone depletion

depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) increases the amount of potentially harmful solar UV radiation reaching earths surface as ozone layer provides a natural filter

- increases prevalence rates of skin cancer

- cataract development amplified - 1 in 5 cases likely to be caused by enhanced levels of UV radiation

LDEs/NEEs - disproportionately affected - lack of education/ investment into preventative methods - suncream etc. + more time spent outside in agricultural jobs

Montreal Protocol (1987) banned global use of CFCs - helps shrink the hole but not 100% close it

Country experiencing patterns of overall population change: Japan

• reasons for ageing population

• Okinawa island

has one of oldest populations due to low birth + fertility rates

- stage 5 DTM: birth rate falls below death rate, causes pop. decline and an ageing population (life expectancy 85)

- population set to decline 30% by 2050

reasons for ageing population =

- excellent healthcare + living standards increasing life expect.

- low fat diets, reduce obesity/CHD

- widely available and used contraception

- schooling prices mean families can only afford school for one child therefore have less children

Okinawa island = blue zone (geographic area with lower rates of chronic disease and higher life expectancy)

- result of a plant based diet (tofu, veg, sweet potato)

- highly active lives - frequent gardening/walking

Country experiencing patterns of overall population change: Japan

- socio-economic implications

socio-economic implications =

negative

- facing a demographic-time bomb due to young dependants only making up 13.5% of the population, increases dependency ratio and creates a burden of elderly support

- shrinking working population decreases economic output

- 40% government spending on elderly, increased pressure for healthcare services

positive

- increased demand for leisure/tourism amongst affluent elderly generates jobs/income

Country experiencing patterns of overall population change: Japan

- government response

government responses = increased consumption tax to ensure there is sufficient government income to invest in elderly care - social impact - people already cant afford school/ have less kids

- pro-natal policies such as increased maternity leave and financial incentives from companies to employees who get pregnant to encourage having children

- encouraging immigration of skilled workers to the country to increase the workforce eg. acceptance of foreign nurses from Indonesia

- immigrant population in Japan = 2.2 million

- language barriers/ challenges of immigrants integrating in local culture

Relationship between a place and health - Boscombe

- physical environment

- Suburb of Bournemouth on the SW coast

- Boscombe centre = most deprived area in SW England

- highly transient population (lots of movement), creates lots of derelict HMOs as short term residents dont take time to repair/renovate housing

physical environment =

- receives 7.4 hours average sunshine/day, beach environment provides lots of access to fresh air, walks, swims (exercise)

- no clear relationship between physical environment and health as despite good environment life expectancy is 9 years lower than England average for men - shows that socio-economic factors having greater impact on health

Relationship between a place and health - Boscombe

- socio/economic challenges and health impacts

socio/economic challenges and health impacts =

- economic decline/cycles of poverty: 70% all houses rented in Boscombe West, compared to 34% average across South West

- high population of transient renters, downwards poverty spiral amplified by high movement of people from property to property (breaks in service eg. GP registration exacerbates health issues)

- poor overcrowded living conditions worsen health - mental health declining increases rates of self harm, higher partaking in risk behaviours: alcohol/drug misuse

- 13% population economically inactive due to illness

-admissions for alcohol-related mental health 100% higher for men in Bournemouth that national average

Relationship between a place and health - Boscombe

- experiences/attitudes

experiences/attitudes =

- only 55% felt satisfied with where they live: build up of negative emotions and dissatisfaction exacerbates mental health conditions/risk behaviours - higher rates of lung cancer

- 81% population in Boscombe recognised that drugs and alcohol are an issue - high awareness of issues

introduction

population parameters

key elements in physical environment

distribution = global/regional spread of population

density = measurement of population per unit area eg. per km2

climate - dictates size of population that can be supported in an area

- affects disease incidence

- affects agriculture - crops need conditions to grow eg. monsoons and flooded paddy fields

soil

- water content, nutrients, quality affects agricultural productivity

water

- clean water for hygiene, sanitation, agriculture, drinking

- reduce incidence of water born disease

Global and regional patterns of food production/consumption

- changing patterns + over nutrition

food production

- increased due to green/gene revolution

- unevenly distributed - LDE produce least crops, cant invest in agricultural systems to utilise land/over come environmental challenges

- Sub Sahara extreme droughts and high temperatures limit growth seasons

consumption

- increasing due to population growth and overall higher consumption/person

- HDEs more income for food - highest consumption

in 2014 1 in 9 of the global population suffered from chronic undernourishment

undernourishment = food intake is insufficient to meet dietary needs

Sub-Saharan Africa - area with higher undernourishment: 1 in 4

- continent with least calories consumed

global undernourishment decreasing due to the rise of the green + gene revolution - strategies to increase food security

critical = malnutrition is still highly prevalent even with decrease in undernourishment - rise of over nutrition in HDEs

- more than 1.9 billion adults overweight in 2014

- more junk/processed food cheap and easily available

- North America = highest consumption rate

Agricultural systems

- total factor productivity

total factor productivity = compares total inputs (land,labour,capital) to total outputs from the system (crops,livestock)

- improved through higher yield varieties (IR8 rice), disease resistant crops (GM modification)

Agricultural systems

- arable, pastoral, intensive, extensive

arable = cereal + root crops

- commercial = potato cultivation in UK

- subsistence = direct production of food to feed family/community with any excess sold/bartered (slash and burn shifting cultivation in Latin america)

extensive =

- low labour, machinery and inputs of capital but large land area : low yield per hectare - sheep farming in Lake District

- lowest productivity

pastoral = livestock

intensive farming =

- high labour/capital investment, uses greenhouses, developed technology/irrigation

- high yields/hectare

- highest productivity

Tropical monsoon climate

- effect on human activity

- climate change impacts

found across India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh - due to wind reversal creates 2 climates, dry winter droughts and hot wet summers with intense rain periods

effect on human activities/population =

- high population due to moderate climate, resource availability and agricultural suitability

- heavy rain allows for rice farming- seedlings grown in nurseries in dry season and transplanted into flooded fields

- (+ve) water supply supports economy through rice growing + tea industry, fills aquifers in wet season to last in dry season and sustain population - aids growth

India rice market worth $52 billion (2024)

- heavy monsoons can damage infrastructure - washes away crops + causes human risks - social + economic disadvantages can create push factors - encourage migration

climate change impact on agriculture =

- weaker monsoon reduced agricultural output in rice/tea sectors

- lower production causes food shortages, rising prices and economic decline

- heavy rainfall events have increased in India by 85% since 2012

- unexpected rainfall in 2023 damaged 2000 hectares of horticultural crops - mangos, bananas etc.

Polar climate

- effect on human activity

- climate change impacts

average temperature = less than 10 celsius, found across northern and southern hemisphere - Greenland, Iceland

- permanent ground cover of ice/ continuous melting and refreezing of top permafrost layer creates challenges to agriculture

effect on human activities/population =

- scarce populations concentrated in large settlements - lots of natives living nomadically

- arable farming can only occur in areas where permafrost thaws in summer - use of greenhouses/poly-tunnels needed to insulate air to support vulnerable crops

eg. Innuit community in Canada that are using greenhouses to grow produce - overcomes high cost to import produce

- lots of tourism, fishing, mining as primary sectors to the economy due to being less climate restricted

climate change impact on agriculture =

- warmer wetter winters increase Arctic growing seasons allowing for more arable/pastoral farming due to earlier thawing of permafrost and availability of land for crop growth

- higher prevalence of pests that wouldn't normally survive winters - disease causing crop loss

Climate change impact on agriculture

Less predictable precipitation

- jeopardise rice farming/water reliant crop harvests

to overcome: introduce less water intensive farming methods: Climarice - Norwegian project, increases yields, rice can be sowed directly into soils

- used to overcome food insecurity due to water shortages in India - but higher pesticides/herbicides needed to overcome increased issue of weeds with new Climarice variety

Higher drought in Central Africa due to rising temperatures, water insecurity limits crop yield due to insufficient irrigation

Asian Pacific - more intense monsoon seasons, heavy rains damage crops, reduces harvests and economic yield

Podsol soil

- characteristics

- uses/farming

zonal soil: major soil group classified as covering a wide geographic region - state of dynamic equilibrium with climate, vegetation

soil of the taiga - found in boreal coniferous forests of North America and Eurasia

- typically 1m thick with poor mineral quality hummus due to a lack of leaf litter from evergreen coniferous trees

- cold temperatures hinder rates of decomposition

- clear horizons due to a lack of mixing agents - worms etc.

uses/farming =

high acidity of soil due to slow nutrient cycling limits arable farming as crops cannot survive the low pH

- can be overcome with application of lime and artificial fertilisers

- most used for forestry, livestock grazing + grouse breeding

- grouse breeding in Northern UK + Scotland generates £150mill annually +

Tropical red latosols

- characteristics

- uses/farming

found in warm wet equatorial climate: South America

thin horizon layer due to rapid nutrient cycle - lots of dense vegetation quickly uses up humus

highly fertile top layer of hummus allows it to support rich, dense vegetation

- 30-40m deep

Soil problems + solutions

- functions of soil and global patterns

- 33% soils have been degraded globally

-soils sustain 95% food production - damage to soils generates food insecurity

functions: nutrient cycling, sustaining plant/animal life, filter out pollutants, physically stabilise and support earth - medium for plant roots

Soil problems + solutions

- soil erosion

Soil Erosion =

- relocation or loss of topsoil due to wind/water erosion, removes nutrients and soils ability to hold water, occurs naturally but is accelerated by human actions:

- clearing vegetation: removes roots binding soils together

- over grazing, over cultivation, deforestation, ploughing loosening soil increasing its vulnerability

Solutions =

- crop rotation, ensures fields arent left empty, cover crops provide barriers to erosion - soybean and corn rotation in Midwest US

- mulching, covering soil with a layer of plant material to protect from wind and rain

In last 40 years 1/3 worlds arable land become unproductive due to soil erosion - creates global food security issues - will be worsened by accelerated rates of climate change

Soil problems + solutions

- salinisation

Salinisation =

- accumulation of salt within soil, when evaporation exceeds precipitation and therefore salts not leached - decreases soils osmotic potential preventing plants water uptake - causes crop loss

- cause by over extraction of groundwater, poor irrigation practices (use of saline water, insufficient drainage), low precipitation and rising temperatures (global warming)

Solutions =

- optimise irrigation through using desalinated water, drip irrigation and dont over irrigate

- increased education in rural communities on sustainable soil irrigation practises

- key issue in hot arid areas with insufficient information about drainage: Northern African plains

Soil problems + solutions

- water logging

Water logging =

- pore spaces of soils occupied by water as opposed to air - insufficient oxygen for plant respiration

- causes tissue decomposition, damp soils harbour vectors for disease, soil temperatures decrease inhibiting growth

- caused by heavy rainfall, impermeable rocks, unsustainable irrigation and poor drainage

Solution =

- use of drainage channels to carry away excess water

- education on sustainable irrigation/ not overwatering

- growing crops that can tolerate excess soil moisture - paddy fields in tropical monsoon climate of India (890mm rain/year)

Soil problems + solutions

- structural deterioration

Structural deterioration =

- compaction and compression of soil particles, reduces spaces between particles

- can become impenetrable if structure destroyed by livestock compaction and heavy machinery

- water cannot infiltrate due to lack of space - crop failure

- suffocation of root hair cells

Solution =

- afforestation, tree roots help to bind together soils prevent further erosion and degradation

- limit ploughing and use of heavy machinery

Improving food security -

- food security

physical, social, and economic access at all times to safe and nutritious food that sufficiently meets dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life

Improving food security -

- improving post harvest practises (LDE)

Improving food security -

- reducing food waste (HDE)

Reducing Food Waste (HDE) =

- large scale throughout the UK to improve food security/reduce loss

- lots of edible food thrown away from households and supermarkets - causes over consumption

- Morrison introduced "wonky fruit" scheme - sell fruits not conforming to size customers prefer

Global patterns of health

- economic + social developments to aid health

economic developments =

- technology to improve food production/supply (Green/Gene)

- better drainage/sewer infrastructure in urban areas

-improved transport to distribute medical supplies

social developments =

- improved sanitation

- better education on disease transmission

- medical advances - vaccines, antibiotics

- better doctor/nurse training

- NGO/ WHO aid projects to improve healthcare resources

Global patterns of health

- mortality and morbidity in LDEs/HDEs

mortality = indicated by death rate

morbidity =illness/poor health of a population - indicated by prevalence and incidence rates of diseases

LDEs=

- higher rates of communicable disease due to poor sanitation/ poor water quality encouraging spread eg. cholera

- infectious disease main cause of death

- malnutrition, poor diets increase risk of illness

- higher infant mortality, lower life expectancies

HDEs=

- more non-communicable disease - better healthcare reduces prevalence rates of communicable disease

- live more sedentary lifestyles, less movement + poorer diets due to access to junk food etc - increases chance of heart disease, stroke, diabetes

- vaccinations aid to reduce spread of certain disease - pox

- partake in more risk factors: smoking, drinking

- lower morbidity rates of diseases highly prevalent in HDEs

Epidemiological transition

- what does the model show

Epidemiological transition

- stages 1-4

1= Age of infection and famine

- poor sanitation and hygiene systems, unreliable food supply

- lots of famine and epidemic outbreaks, most deaths due to infections and communicable diseases

- low life expectancy 20-40

3= Age of degenerative/man-made disease

- increased ageing, mortality declines

- infectious diseases replaced by non-communicable degenerative diseases as main cause of population decline

- higher anthropogenic (human caused deaths) such as strokes, heart disease, cancer due to more risk behaviours, smoking, drinking etc

- life expectancy 50-60

2= Age of reducing pandemics

- improving sanitation and diet, advances in medicine such as discovery of penicillin (1928) which helped reduce death rates

- better public utilities eg. clean water - responsible for half of death prevention in 19th century

- rise of strokes/heart disease, less infections

- life expectancy 30-50

4= Age of delayed degenerative disease

- causes of mortality same as in stage 3, anthropogenic deaths cause by lifestyle but they are delayed until older ages due to new treatments, prevention and health promotions

- seen in Japan/Italy where life expectancy is rising at 70-80

Epidemiological transition

- classic/accelerated/delayed models

Classic/western model = seen in Europe, now experiencing a slow decline in death rates and fertility

Accelerated model = rapid transition, mortality falls quicker due to country being able to leapfrog stages of development due to technology already accessible (Asia)

Delayed model = sub-Saharan Africa, mortality decreasing but not fertility due to still high infant mortality

Environmental factors and health

- air quality

- water quality

Air quality =

- declared in 2018 by WHO to pose the single largest environmental health risk

- higher issue in developing countries due to a lack of investment into cleaner transport, efficient energy, better waste management

- people in LDE/NEE disproportionally affected eg. Bangladesh/India - high pollution due to rapid industrialisation in cities - Dehli = most polluted capital - 12000 annual

Water quality =

- WHO claims 2.2 million deaths annually are due to unsafe water, poor sanitation and health

- diarrhoeal diseases 2nd leading cause of death in under 5 year olds

- in 2018 fall of 60% in cholera cases as key endemic countries developed plans to reduce contamination and increased awareness on improving water quality - gained control on disease

- significantly impacts LDEs more than HDEs as in HDEs properly developed infrastructure and education is in place to avoid water pollution - ETM link

Environmental factors and health

- climate

- topography

Climate =

- drought can cause crop failure, heavy monsoons cause damage, reduces food security - increases famine risk

- seasonal mortality in the UK caused by cold weather

- can be overcome due to increased central heating use

- but between 2022 and 2023 number of deaths due to cold and damp rose by 50% - result of economic and fuel crisis

malarial prevalance - DRC and Brazil - same latitude - same climatic conditon for vector - DRC disproportionately affected due to development

Topography (drainage) =

- unplanned floods cause 1/2 of all natural disaster deaths, high population density in low land areas near water sources

- floods contaminate freshwater - increase risk of waterborne disease, breeding ground for vectors eg, mosquitoes

- poor drainage = stagnant waters

- increased severity of flood in low lying flat Bangladesh

NGOs

- doctors without borders

Non-governmental organisations

- front line work - provide on ground aid

- act as alternative healthcare providers in developing countries in times of crisis providing initial response set

-funded by donations from developed countries, individuals not nations

Doctors without borders =

- 90% of income comes from individual donations - stays neutral - works in 60 countries over the world

- helps alert and respond to disease epidemics

- mount emergence responses

- in 2014 DWB helped treat just under 50,000 people suffering from cholera outbreaks, providing beds, re hydration salts, surgical equipment/gloves

- however unable to implement long term change in a country due to lack of political power, cannot improve sanitation systems and infrastructure or complete large scale education - government has to be involved in that

- vaccinated over 1.5 million globally against Measles

Demographic Transition Model

DTM = universally applied model to illustrate and compare stages of demographic development

drawbacks: doesn't illustrate migration, government policies that impact birth rates, and is based on Western world - not necessarily globally applicable

1= high birth and high death rates, small fluctuations no overall population change, lots of famine/disease/child loss - rural LDE communities

3= natural increase starts to become more prevalent, improvements to healthcare, sanitation, nutrition reduce deaths and introduction of contraception/falling child death rate lowers birth rate - India/Kenya

5= natural decrease, higher elderly population, less young people having kids/smaller families means pop starts to decline as deaths overtake births -Germany/Japan

2= death rate declines as living standards improve, birth rate stays high due to high infant mortality and needing children to help support family eg. work farms

4= fertility falls as woman are more educated and have less children, deaths continue to fall aswell as people live longer, pop growth may be mainly due to immigration, - US/ most of Europe

natural population change

affected by

- birth rate

- death rate

- fertility rate

- population growth rate

- life expectancy

age-sex composition

- demographic variables indicating level of development

- shown on population pyramids (correlate to DTM stages)

Application of DTM in contrasting physical/human settings

- Canada

- Niger

Canada =

- mountainous, wide expanse of land, taiga + tundra

- small population compared to size - 35 million, sparsely populated but densely urbanised - tertiary sector economy

- low birth rate and death rate : low natural increase (Stage 4) but is a multicultural society accepting to controlled immigration, prevents Canada entering stage 5 as controlled increase occurs

- can cope with increased population due to being rich in resources/space

- avoiding becoming an ageing population + maintaining balanced population structure

Niger =

- arid dry desert climate, frequently threatened by drought/desertification

- sparsely populated, primary sector economy

- lack of natural resources like coal/oil hindering economic development to a secondary sector economy - delayed industrialisation

- 90% population are muslim - resulted in high birth rates due to religious beliefs

- low and falling death rates (Stage 2) deaths rates are lower than expected due to government effort to reduce child mortality through reducing hunger/malnutrition and improving healthcare

- land locked - 40% average reduced trade

Demographic Dividend

Demographic dividend = working population is higher than dependants (elderly + children), boosts economic growth due to higher productivity and less people for the government to support

- occurs when death rate falls but birth rate lags behind in decreasing due to time taken for parents to adjust to lower infant mortality and start having less kids

- creates a period of high productivity: large young educated workforce attracts investment, higher salaries grows a demand for goods/service consumption

- first seen in Stage 3 DTM

- requires investment into education and employment to ensure is utilised

- is aided by a rich natural resource source

- development can be deterred by prescence of political instability

- can create pressure on environment/natural resources

natural population change

- Bangladesh

- China

Bangladesh =

- one of most densely populated countries in the world, 1 in 3 in extreme poverty - further population increase would pressurise services/resources even further - exacerbate poverty

- government introduced in late 1970s a door stop service of trained female health workers, provide basic maternal/child healthcare and contraceptive advice

- reduced child mortality and families had less children therefore became wealthier

- more children stayed in school and woman earned higher incomes

-average birth rates fell from 6 children per woman to 2 and as a result Bangladesh's population is no longer due to double by 2050 - beginning to stabilise

China =

government introduced the one child policy in 1979 to address the countries rapid rate of population growth

- successful (especially in urban areas) China now has low birth, death and natural increase rates

- reduced unemployment rate but production output wasn't impacted

- reduced demand on social infrastructure/resources improves quality of life

However Chinese cultural centred around male offspring, as a result increased rates of female infanticide/infant abandonment were seen

- china's missing women estimated to be 50 million in 2005

- resulted in a gender imbalance and a "marriage squeeze" due to insufficient brides

- future issues created due to the 4-2-1 problem with single children left having to provide for 4 grandparents and 2 parents - high dependency ratios

- refugee
- asylum seeker
- economic migrant; causes of migration

refugee = person who has fled their country and cannot return due to fear of harm

• - 35.3 million refugees globally

asylum seeker = person who has claimed refugee status in another country and is waiting to see if they are successful

economic migrant = person who chooses to move to another country in hope of improved economic prospects

causes of migration

- war (Palestinian refugees)

- ethnic persecution

- poverty, famine (Sub-Saharan - seeking better quality of life/health)

implications of migration

-demographic

- social

- economic

demographic

origin =

- loss of young working population, causes shift to an ageing population, unbalanced pop, structure

destination =

- influx of young working population can boost economy and create a young educated work force (demographic dividend)

- balance out an ageing population, reduces dependency ratio

social

origin =

- reduced pressure on education and healthcare services due to less people to provide for

- loss of skilled workforce, eg. NHS staff loss post Brexit

destination =

- increase in cultural diversity (Notting Hill carnival, UK) but segregation of migrants to certain areas can create ethnic/racial tensions

- pressure on schools/infant services

economic

origin =

-loss of skilled workforce, but less unemployment due to more available jobs

- migrant workers may send money home - invested back into origin country economy

destination =

- increase of working age creates a demographic dividend, benefits economy but increase of migrant workers taking jobs may cause a rise in unemployment

- additional cost of healthcare/education services

implications of migration

- political

- environmental

Contrasting perspectives on the implications of population growth

- Malthus

- Boserup

Malthus =

- population growth occurs faster than growth of food availability, without population controls population will outgrow food supply resulting in Malthusian catastrophes (war, famine, disease) which will create Malthusian checks that will end up reducing populations (negative feedback)

- Neo-Malthusian "limits to growth model" produced in 1972, shows how economic growth cannot continue indefinitely due to limited natural resource availability and the global impacts of resource depletion: decreasing populations/industrial output, less food security etc.

evidence =

-between 1800 and 2015 population increased by 6 billion

- increased frequency of "Malthusian catastrophes" such as famines in Ethiopia + Sudan

Boserup =

alternative more optimistic view

- said that human ingenuity can alter carrying capacity allowing it to extend with a growing population, a higher population density stimulates development of new technology and innovation

- "necessity is the mother of invention"

- population change stimulates change in agriculture: eg. development of IR8 rice strain in Phillipeans to overcome food insecurity due to a growing population

health impacts of global environmental change

ozone depletion

depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) increases the amount of potentially harmful solar UV radiation reaching earths surface as ozone layer provides a natural filter

• increases prevalence rates of skin cancer

- cataract development amplified - 1 in 5 cases likely to be caused by enhanced levels of UV radiation

• LDEs/NEEs - disproportionately affected - lack of education/ investment into preventative methods - suncream etc. + more time spent outside in agricultural jobs

Montreal Protocol (1987) banned global use of CFCs - helps shrink the hole but not 100% close it

health impacts of global environmental change

climate change

between 2030 and 2050 climate change is expected to cause around 250,000 additional deaths due to malaria, heat stress and malnutrition - LDEs disproportionately affected

thermal stress =

- increased frequency of heatwaves increases mortality/morbidity in particular amongst elderly - LDEs likely to have highest rise in mortality rates due to lack of resources (eg. air con) to adapt to changing temperature patterns

- deaths from heat waves in Australian cities projected to double in 40 years

agricultural productivity =

- increasing temperatures increase crop failure risk in seasonally arid regions - LDEs unable to overcome issues due to lack of irrigation systems whereas can be more overcome in HDEs

- changes to rainfall patterns affect migration of pests such as locusts - increases food insecurity/famine - Afghanistan agriculture at risk from plagues due to northern migration of locusts

- increased intensity of extreme weather events - in Bangladesh unexpected heavy monsoons in 2023 damaged 2000 hectares of horticultural crops

vector borne disease =

- warming of world expands geographic range of diseases, vector borne diseases from tropics spread as warm/humid climate perfect for mosquito breeding is found in other parts of the world

- 1M already die annually from Malaria - could increase - 20oc temp range needed for vector life cycle is found across other countries

nutritional standards =

- widespread malnutrition and famine - increase cerebral malaria rates

- people eat poor quality foods due to scarcity - diarrhoeal disease

- deficiencies due to eating a lack of food varieties - causes diseases like rickets

prospects for the global population and distribution

UN produced several alternative scenarios for the future global population - all show population growth until 2050 at least

1) scenario 1 = continual increase of population (least likely)

scenario 2 = gradual slowing in population growth rate as a result of countries starting to develop and reach stage 4 of the DTM as well as increased Malthusian checks to balance population

scenario 3 = drastic population decline due to promotion of family planning/ increased controls eg. one child policy in China