Unit 3.1-3.6: Key Terms

Zygotes

A fertilized egg, representing the first stage of human development, which undergoes rapid cell division.

Embryo

The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization to the end of the eighth week.

Fetus

The developing human from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Teratogens

Harmful agents, such as chemicals or viruses, that can cause damage to the developing embryo or fetus.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy.

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure, used to study infant cognition.

Maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Critical Period

A specific time in development when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences is necessary for normal development.

Motor Development

The progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities.

Brain Maturation

The growth and development of the brain, allowing for increasingly complex behaviors and skills.

Infantile Amnesia

The inability to recall memories from before about age 3 due to immature brain development.

Adolescence

The transitional period between childhood and adulthood, characterized by physical and psychological changes.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproduction.

Menopause

The time in a woman's life when menstrual cycles end, marking the cessation of

Biological Sex

The physical characteristics (e.g., chromosomes, hormones) that define male and female.

Gender

The socially constructed roles and characteristics associated with being male, female, or nonbinary.

Intersex

A condition in which an individual is born with atypical combinations of male and female physical characteristics.

Aggression

Behavior intended to harm another, physically or verbally.

Relational Aggression

Behavior intended to harm a person's relationships or social standing.

Gender Role

A set of expected behaviors for males or females defined by society.

Sexual Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is intended to harm or dominate another.

Gender Identity

A person's sense of being male, female, or another gender.

Social Learning Theory

The theory that gender roles are learned through reinforcement, punishment, and observation.

Gender Typing

The acquisition of traditional male or female roles.

Gender Schema

A framework for understanding gendered behavior and expectations.

Transgender

Describing people whose gender identity differs from their biological sex.

X Chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both males and females; females have two, males have one.

Y Chromosome

The sex chromosome found only in males, paired with an X chromosome from the mother.

Testosterone

The most important male sex hormone, influencing male sex organ development and traits.

Estrogen

A primary female sex hormone, important for reproductive system development and regulation.

Primary Sex Characteristics

Body structures (e.g., ovaries, testes) that make reproduction possible.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Non-reproductive traits (e.g., breasts, body hair) that develop during puberty.

Spermarche

The first ejaculation, marking the start of male reproductive capacity.

Menarche

The first menstrual period, marking the start of female reproductive capacity.

Sexuality

A person's sexual orientation, preferences, and identity.

Asexual

A lack of sexual attraction to others.

External Stimuli

Visual or physical environmental cues that influence sexual arousal.

Social Scripts

Societal norms and expectations about how to behave in certain sexual or romantic situations.

Sexual Orientation

A person's pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to others.

Trait & Brain Differences (Simon LeVay)

Observed neural differences in brain regions linked to sexual orientation.

Genetic & Prenatal Influences

Factors, such as genes and hormones during pregnancy, that may influence sexual orientation.

Cognitions

Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding.

Schema

A mental framework for organizing and interpreting information.

Assimilation

Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemas to include new information.

Jean Piaget

A developmental psychologist who proposed stages of cognitive development.

Sensorimotor Stage

Birth to 2 years, when infants know the world through sensory impressions and motor activities.

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Preoperational Stage

Ages 2-7, characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism but lacking logical reasoning.

Conservation

Understanding that properties like mass, volume, and number remain constant despite changes in form.

Egocentrism

Difficulty taking another's point of view, typical in the preoperational stage.

Concrete Operational Stage

Ages 7-11, marked by logical thinking about concrete events and mastery of conservation.

Formal Operational Stage

Ages 12 and up, when abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking develop.

Lev Vygotsky

A developmental psychologist who emphasized the role of social interaction in learning.

Scaffolding

Providing support for learning that is gradually removed as independence increases.

Zone of Proximal Development

The range of tasks a child can perform with guidance but not yet independently.

Theory of Mind

Understanding that others have their own thoughts, feelings, and perspectives.

Lawrence Kohlberg & Moral Reasoning

A theorist who identified stages of moral reasoning.

Preconventional Morality

Focus on self-interest and avoiding punishment.

Conventional Morality

Upholding laws and social rules for approval or order.

Postconventional Morality

Guided by self-defined ethical principles.

Phoneme

The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.

Morpheme

The smallest unit of meaning in a language, such as a word or a prefix.

Grammar

The set of rules that enables people to communicate, including syntax (sentence structure) and semantics (meaning).

Universal Grammar

Noam Chomsky's theory that humans are born with an innate ability to understand the structure of language.

Receptive Language

The ability to comprehend speech and understand language.

Productive Language

The ability to produce words and express oneself through language.

Babbling Stage

The stage in infancy, around 4 months, when babies spontaneously produce nonsensical, repetitive sounds.

One-Word Stage

The stage, around 12 months, when a child speaks mostly in single words.

Two-Word Stage

The stage, around 24 months, when a child starts combining two words to form simple sentences.

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech stage where a child uses mostly nouns and verbs in a grammatically simplistic way (e.g., "Want cookie").

Aphasia

A language impairment caused by brain damage, affecting speaking, understanding, or both.

Broca's Area

A region in the frontal lobe of the brain responsible for speech production.

Wernicke's Area

A region in the temporal lobe of the brain involved in language comprehension.

Linguistic Determinism

The hypothesis that language determines the way we think.

Linguistic Relativism

The idea that language influences thought but does not entirely determine it.

Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner's theory emphasizing how different environmental systems interact to influence human development.

Stranger Anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display beginning around 8 months of age.

Harlow's Monkey Experiment

A study that demonstrated the importance of physical contact and comfort in attachment using baby monkeys and surrogate mothers.

Attachment

A deep emotional bond that connects one person to another, especially between a child and caregiver.

Imprinting

A process in which certain animals form strong attachments during a critical early period.

Secure Attachment

A healthy attachment style where a child feels safe and confident exploring when the caregiver is present.

Insecure Attachment

An attachment style where a child shows anxiety or avoidance in their relationship with the caregiver.

Strange Situation

Mary Ainsworth's experimental procedure to assess attachment styles in infants by observing their reactions to separations and reunions with their caregiver.

Temperament

An individual's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, which is thought to have a biological basis.

Basic Trust

Erik Erikson's idea that securely attached infants develop a sense of the world as predictable and trustworthy.

Self-Concept

A sense of one's identity and personal worth, typically developing by age 12.

Authoritarian

Strict rules, high expectations, and little warmth.

Permissive

Few demands or rules; highly nurturing.

Neglectful

Minimal involvement or responsiveness to a child's needs.

Authoritative

High expectations balanced with warmth and responsiveness.

Mark Rosenzweig

A psychologist who studied the effects of experience on brain development, showing the importance of an enriched environment.

Enriched vs. Impoverished Environment

An enriched environment with stimulation promotes brain development, while an impoverished one hinders it.

Peer Influence

The impact that peers have on an individual's attitudes, values, and behavior.

Identity

One's sense of self, including personal values, beliefs, and goals.

Social Identity

The "we" aspect of self-concept derived from group memberships.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

A theory outlining eight stages of psychosocial challenges individuals face across the lifespan (e.g., trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role confusion).

Intimacy

Erikson's stage in early adulthood focused on forming close, meaningful relationships.

Emerging Adulthood

A period between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood characterized by exploration and instability.

Social Clock

The culturally preferred timing of major life events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.