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Totipotent
Capacity to divide and differentiate into a whole plant
Somatic embryogenesis
Process of forming plant embryos from non reproductive cells
Organogenesis
Roots and shoots are formed from a single cell or callus
Somatic hybridization
Allows manipulation of cellular genome by protoplast fusion
Allows breeding of plant species that could not happen otherwise
Symmetric somatic hybrids
combination of nuclear and cytoplasmic genetic info of both parents
Ploidy level increases
Asymmetric somatic hybrids
Lose some cytoplasmic or nuclear DNA
Donor parent and recipient
Cybrids (Cytoplasmic hybrids)
Harbors only one parental nuclear genome and either cytoplasmic genome of other or both parents
Somatic Hybridization Advantages
Species bred which are sexually incompatible
Cytoplasmic transfer in short duration
Mitochondria can be combined with chloroplast of other species
PCR reactions need
DNA Template
Primers
dNTPs
DNA polymerase or Taq Polymerase
Denaturation Step
94-98 degrees C
Disrupts H bonds and yields single strands of DNA
Annealing Step
50-65 degrees C
Allows annealing of primers to strands
Stable H bonds form
DNA polymerase binds to primer template and begins synthesis of complementary strands of DNA
Extension Step
72 degrees C
DNA polymerase synthesizes a new DNA strand complementary to template. dNTPS help to do this
Cloning DNA into plasmid vector
Restriction endonuclease cleave target
Phosphatase vector
Ligate target into vector
Transform into host cells
Transformation Frequency
Ratio of transformed cells to total number of treated cells
Transformation efficiency
Number of transformed cells produced by 1 ug of plasmid DNA into a given volume of competent cells
Methods for Analysis of Gene Expression
PCR
RNA sequencing
Microarry
Northern blotting
Regulation of gene expression depends on
Promoter and terminator sequences
Strength of ribosome binding site
Number of copies of cloned gene
efficiency of translation in host
Nucleotides Contain
A phosphate group
A sugar (deoxyribose)
A nitrogen base (A T C or G)
Purine
Adenine and Guanine
Pyrimidine
Cytosine and Thymine
A-T Bond type
Two H-bonds
C-G
3 H-bonds
DNA replication
Unzips and 2 strands act as templates for 2 new complementary strands
DNA polymerase + enzymes required
5’ to 3’
DNA gyrase
Unwinds DNA coil in replication
DNA Helicase
Splits H bond between bases
DNA Vs. RNA
DNA has a deoxyribose (H)
RNA has a ribose (OH)
Types of RNA
mRNA (messenger RNA) for transcription
rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
tRNA (transfer RNA) for translation
Number of types of amino acids
20
How many stop codons
3
Degenerate codon
more than one codon for many amino acids
Protein Synthesis (Translation)
Auxins
Stimulate root growth
Cytokinin
Stimulates shoot growth
Explant
mother plant where tissue was extracted from
Cell/tissue plasticity
Ability to initiate cell division from any tissue of the plant.
ability to regenerate organs or undergo developmental pathway in response to external stimuli
Competent cells
Bacterial cells that can take up foreign DNA through the transformation process
Replicon
DNA originated from a single replication origin
Transcription
RNA polymerase binds to promoter region and unzips the DNA strands
The polymerase adds complementary base pairs (which will be the mRNA) as it moves across the template strand. Polymerase will also zip DNA back up as it goes
The polymerase eventually releases when it reaches the terminator sequence
DNA replication
Helicase enzyme unzips DNA and 2 strands act as template for synthesis of two new complementary strands
Primase binds DNA fragments
DNA polymerase binds to primer and copies each strand (+ other enzymes needed)
Lagging strand has Okazaki fragments
Leading strand complementary base pair
Nucleotides always added 3’
Translation
Small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA.
tRNA binds to start codon (AUG)
Next tRNA enters ribosome through the A site and binds to the methionine in start codon.
First tRNA leaves ribosome as the previous tRNA moves to the P site
Stops when stop codon is reached